WO2008008162A2

WO2008008162A2 - Support structure for free-standing mems device and methods for forming the same

Info

Publication number: WO2008008162A2
Application number: PCT/US2007/014511
Authority: WO
Inventors: Lior Kogut; Ming-Hau Tung; Brian Arbuckle
Original assignee: Qualcomm Mems Technologies, Inc.
Priority date: 2006-06-28
Filing date: 2007-06-21
Publication date: 2008-01-17
Also published as: WO2008008162A3; US20080055707A1; US7835061B2

Abstract

A microelectromechanical (MEMS) device includes a functional layer including a first material, a deformable layer including a second material different from the first material, and a connecting element including the first material. The connecting element is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer and the functional layer. The connecting element and the deformable layer form an interface between the first material and the second material. The interface is spaced from the functional layer.

Description

SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR FREE-STANDING MEMS DEVICE AND METHODS FOR FORMING THE SAME

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

[0001] The field of the invention relates to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Description of the Related Art

[0002] Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) include micro mechanical elements, actuators, and electronics. Micromechanical elements may be created using deposition, etching, and/or other micromachining processes that etch away parts of substrates and/or deposited material layers or that add layers to form electrical and electromechanical devices. One type of MEMS device is called an interferometric modulator. As used herein, the term interferometric modulator or interferometric light modulator refers to a device that selectively absorbs and/or reflects light using the principles of optical interference. In certain embodiments, an interferometric modulator may comprise a pair of conductive plates, one or both of which may be transparent and/or reflective in whole or part and capable of relative motion upon application of an appropriate electrical signal. In a particular embodiment, one plate may comprise a stationary layer deposited on a substrate and the other plate may comprise a metallic membrane separated from the stationary layer by an air gap. As described herein in more detail, the position of one plate in relation to another can change the optical interference of light incident on the interferometric modulator. Such devices have a wide range of applications, and it would be beneficial in the art to utilize and/or modify the characteristics of these types of devices so that their features can be exploited in improving existing products and creating new products that have not yet been developed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0003J In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises a functional layer comprising a first material, a deformable layer comprising a second material different from the first material, and a connecting element comprising the first material. The connecting element is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer and the functional layer. The connecting element and the deformable layer form an interface between the first material and the second material. The interface is spaced from the functional layer.

[0004] In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises means for controlling a signal, means for supporting the controlling means, and means for coupling the controlling means with the supporting means. The controlling means comprises a first material. The supporting means comprises a second material different from the first material. The coupling means comprises the first material. The coupling means is mechanically coupled to the supporting means and the controlling means. The coupling means and the supporting means form an interface between the first material and the second material. The interface is spaced from the controlling means.

[0005] In certain embodiments, a method of manufacturing a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device on a substrate comprises forming a functional layer comprising a first material, forming a sacrificial layer over the functional layer, forming a deformable layer comprising a second material different from the first material over the sacrificial layer, forming a connecting element comprising the first material, removing the sacrificial layer, and mechanically coupling the connecting element to the deformable layer. The connecting element is fused to the functional layer. The connecting element and the deformable layer form an interface between the first material and the second material. The interface is spaced from the functional layer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0006] FIG. 1 is an isometric view depicting a portion of one embodiment of an interferometric modulator display in which a movable reflective layer of a first interferometric modulator is in a relaxed position and a movable reflective layer of a second interferometric modulator is in an actuated position.

[0007] FIG. 2 is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of an electronic device incorporating a 3x3 interferometric modulator display.

[0008] FIG. 3 is a diagram of movable mirror position versus applied voltage for one exemplary embodiment of an interferometric modulator of FIG. 1.

[0009] FIG. 4 is an illustration of a set of row and column voltages that may be used to drive an interferometric modulator display.

[0010] FIG. 5A illustrates one exemplary frame of display data in the 3x3 interferometric modulator display of FIG. 2. (0011] FIG. 5B illustrates one exemplary timing diagram for row and column signals that may be used to write the frame of FIG. 5 A.

[0012] FIGS. 6 A and 6B are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment of a visual display device comprising a plurality of interferometric modulators.

[0013] FIG. 7 A is a cross section of the device of FIG. 1.

[0014] FIG. 7B is a cross section of an alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

[0015] FIG. 7C is a cross section of another alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

[0016] FIG. 7D is a cross section of yet another alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

[0017] FIG. 7E is a cross section of an additional alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

[0018] FIG. 8 is a cross section of an embodiment of an interferometric modulator with curved and/or tilted reflective layers.

[0019] FIGS. 9A-9F depict cross-sectional views of one method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0020] FIGS. 10A- 1OC depict cross-sectional views of another method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0021] FIGS. 1 IA-11C depict cross-sectional views of yet another method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0022] FIG. 12 is a cross-section of an embodiment of an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0023] FIG. 13 is a cross-section of another embodiment of an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0024] FIG. 14 is a cross-section of yet another embodiment of an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0025] FIG. 15 is a cross-section of still another embodiment of an interferometric modulator with a reflective layer that is not curved and/or tilted. [0026] FIGS. 16A-16D depict cross-sectional views of an example switch with a contact layer that is curved and/or tilted.

[0027) FIGS. 17A-17D depict cross-sectional views of an embodiment of a switch with a contact layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

[0028] FIGS. 18A-18D depict cross-sectional views of another embodiment of a switch with a contact layer that is not curved and/or tilted.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0029] The following detailed description is directed to certain specific embodiments of the invention. However, the invention can be embodied in a multitude of different ways. In this description, reference is made to the drawings wherein like parts are designated with like numerals throughout. As will be apparent from the following description, the embodiments may be implemented in any device that is configured to display an image, whether in motion (e.g., video) or stationary (e.g., still image), and whether textual or pictorial. More particularly, it is contemplated that the embodiments may be implemented in or associated with a variety of electronic devices such as, but not limited to, mobile telephones, wireless devices, personal data assistants (PDAs), handheld or portable computers, GPS receivers/navigators, cameras, MP3 players, camcorders, game consoles, wrist watches, clocks, calculators, television monitors, flat panel displays, computer monitors, auto displays (e.g., odometer display, etc.), cockpit controls and/or displays, display of camera views (e.g., display of a rear view camera in a vehicle), electronic photographs, electronic billboards or signs, projectors, architectural structures, packaging, and aesthetic structures (e.g., display of images on a piece of jewelry). MEMS devices of similar structure to those described herein can also be used in non-display applications such as in electronic switching devices.

[0030] In certain embodiments, an interface between differing materials used to form a deformable layer and a functional layer is provided. This interface is spaced from a position at which the deformable layer and the functional layer are coupled together. This spacing advantageously decreases the curvature and/or tilt of the functional layer. Decreasing curvature and/or tilt is desirable, for example, to provide a substantially flat reflective layer and to make better contact or parallel spacing between electrodes. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a functional layer and adhered to the top of a deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a functional layer and is fused to the top of a deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a functional layer and is fused to the bottom of a deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a thick functional layer and is fused to the bottom of a deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a functional layer and is fused to the bottom of a corrugated deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a functional bilayer and is fused to the bottom of a deformable layer. In some embodiments, a connecting element is fused to the top of a graded bilayer and is fused to the bottom of a deformable layer.

[0031 J One interferometric modulator display embodiment comprising an interferometric MEMS display element is illustrated in Figure 1. In these devices, the pixels are in either a bright or dark state. In the bright ("on" or "open") state, the display element reflects a large portion of incident visible light to a user. When in the dark ("off or "closed") state, the display element reflects little incident visible light to the user. Depending on the embodiment, the light reflectance properties of the "on" and "off states may be reversed. MEMS pixels can be configured to reflect predominantly at selected colors, allowing for a color display in addition to black and white.

[0032] Figure 1 is an isometric view depicting two adjacent pixels in a series of pixels of a visual display, wherein each pixel comprises a MEMS interferometric modulator. In some embodiments, an interferometric modulator display comprises a row/column array of these interferometric modulators. Each interferometric modulator includes a pair of reflective layers positioned at a variable and controllable distance from each other to form a resonant optical cavity with at least one variable dimension. In one embodiment, one of the reflective layers may be moved between two positions. In the first position, referred to herein as the relaxed position, the movable reflective layer is positioned at a relatively large distance from a fixed partially reflective layer. In the second position, referred to herein as the actuated position, the movable reflective layer is positioned more closely adjacent to the partially reflective layer. Incident light that reflects from the two layers interferes constructively or destructively depending on the position of the movable reflective layer, producing either an overall reflective or non- reflective state for each pixel.

[0033 J The depicted portion of the pixel array in Figure 1 includes two adjacent interferometric modulators 12a and 12b. In the interferometric modulator 12a on the left, a movable reflective layer 14a is illustrated in a relaxed position at a 11

predetermined distance from an optical stack 16a, which includes a partially reflective layer. In the interferometric modulator 12b on the right, the movable reflective layer 14b is illustrated in an actuated position adjacent to the optical stack 16b.

[0034] The optical stacks 16a and 16b (collectively referred to as optical stack 16), as referenced herein, typically comprise several fused layers, which can include an electrode layer, such as indium tin oxide (ITO), a partially reflective layer, such as chromium, and a transparent dielectric. The optical stack 16 is thus electrically conductive, partially transparent, and partially reflective, and may be fabricated, for example, by depositing one or more of the above layers onto a transparent substrate 20. The partially reflective layer can be formed from a variety of materials that are partially reflective such as various metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. The partially reflective layer can be formed of one or more layers of materials, and each of the layers can be formed of a single material or a combination of materials.

[0035] In some embodiments, the layers of the optical stack 16 are patterned into parallel strips, and may form row electrodes in a display device as described further below. The movable reflective layers 14a, 14b may be formed as a series of parallel strips of a deposited metal layer or layers (orthogonal to the row electrodes of 16a, 16b) deposited on top of posts 18 and an intervening sacrificial material deposited between the posts 18. When the sacrificial material is etched away, the movable reflective layers 14a, 14b are separated from the optical stacks 16a, 16b by a defined gap 19. A highly conductive and reflective material such as aluminum may be used for the reflective layers 14, and these strips may form column electrodes in a display device.

[0036] With no applied voltage, the cavity 19 remains between the movable reflective layer 14a and optical stack 16a, with the movable reflective layer 14a in a mechanically relaxed state, as illustrated by the pixel 12a in Figure 1. However, when a potential difference is applied to a selected row and column, the capacitor formed at the intersection of the row and column electrodes at the corresponding pixel becomes charged, and electrostatic forces pull the electrodes together. If the voltage is high enough, the movable reflective layer 14 is deformed and is forced against the optical stack 16. A dielectric layer (not illustrated in this Figure) within the optical stack 16 may prevent shorting and control the separation distance between layers 14 and 16, as illustrated by pixel 12b on the right in Figure 1. The behavior is the same regardless of the polarity of the applied potential difference. In this way, row/column actuation that can control the reflective vs. non-reflective pixel states is analogous in many ways to that used in conventional LCD and other display technologies.

[0037] Figures 2 through 5B illustrate one exemplary process and system for using an array of interferometric modulators in a display application.

[0038] Figure 2 is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of an ^•electronic device that may incorporate aspects of the invention. In the exemplary embodiment, the electronic device includes a processor 21 which may be any general purpose single- or multi-chip microprocessor such as an ARM, Pentium^®, Pentium II^®, Pentium III^®, Pentium IV^®, Pentium^® Pro, an 8051, a MIPS^®, a Power PC^®, an ALPHA^®, or any special purpose microprocessor such as a digital signal processor, microcontroller, or a programmable gate array. As is conventional in the art, the processor 21 may be configured to execute one or more software modules. In addition to executing an operating system, the processor may be configured to execute one or more software applications, including a web browser, a telephone application, an email program, or any other software application.

[0039] In one embodiment, the processor 21 is also configured to communicate with an array driver 22. Tn one embodiment, the array driver 22 includes a row driver circuit 24 and a column driver circuit 26 that provide signals to a display array or panel 30. The cross section of the array illustrated in Figure 1 is shown by the lines 1-1 in Figure 2. For MEMS interferometric modulators, the row/column actuation protocol may take advantage of a hysteresis property of these devices illustrated in Figure 3. It may require, for example, a 10 volt potential difference to cause a movable layer to deform from the relaxed state to the actuated state. However, when the voltage is reduced from that value, the movable layer maintains its state as the voltage drops back below 10 volts. In the exemplary embodiment of Figure 3, the movable layer does not relax completely until the voltage drops below 2 volts. Thus, there exists a window of applied voltage, about 3 to 7 V in the example illustrated in Figure 3, within which the device is stable in either the relaxed or actuated state. This is referred to herein as the "hysteresis window" or "stability window." For a display array having the hysteresis characteristics of Figure 3, the row/column actuation protocol can be designed such that during row strobing, pixels in the strobed row that are to be actuated are exposed to a voltage difference of about 10 volts, and pixels that are to be relaxed are exposed to a voltage difference of close to zero volts. After the strobe, the pixels are exposed to a steady state voltage difference of about 5 volts such that they remain in whatever state the row strobe put them in. After being written, each pixel sees a potential difference within the "stability window" of 3-7 volts in this example. This feature makes the pixel design illustrated in Figure 1 stable under the same applied voltage conditions in either an actuated or relaxed pre-existing state. Since each pixel of the interferometric modulator, whether in the actuated or relaxed state, is essentially a capacitor formed by the fixed and moving reflective layers, this stable state can be held at a voltage within the hysteresis window with almost no power dissipation. Essentially no current flows into the pixel if the applied potential is fixed.

[0040] In typical applications, a display frame may be created by asserting the set of column electrodes in accordance with the desired set of actuated pixels in the first row. A row pulse is then applied to the row 1 electrode, actuating the pixels corresponding to the asserted column lines. The asserted set of column electrodes is then changed to correspond to the desired set of actuated pixels in the second row. A pulse is then applied to the row 2 electrode, actuating the appropriate pixels in row 2 in accordance with the asserted column electrodes. The row 1 pixels are unaffected by the row 2 pulse, and remain in the state they were set to during the row 1 pulse. This may be repeated for the entire series of rows in a sequential fashion to produce the frame. Generally, the frames are refreshed and/or updated with new display data by continually repeating this process at some desired number of frames per second. A wide variety of protocols for driving row and column electrodes of pixel arrays to produce display frames are also well known and may be used in conjunction with the present invention.

[0041] Figures 4, 5A, and 5B illustrate one possible actuation protocol for creating a display frame on the 3x3 array of Figure 2. Figure 4 illustrates a possible set of column and row voltage levels that may be used for pixels exhibiting the hysteresis curves of Figure 3. In the Figure 4 embodiment, actuating a pixel involves setting the appropriate column to — Vbi_as, and the appropriate row to +ΔV, which may correspond to - 5 volts and +5 volts, respectively Relaxing the pixel is accomplished by setting the appropriate column to +V_bias, and the appropriate row to the same +ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel. In those rows where the row voltage is held at zero volts, the pixels are stable in whatever state they were originally in, regardless of whether the column is at +Vt,ias_> or -Vbias- As is also illustrated in Figure 4, it will be appreciated that voltages of opposite polarity than those described above can be used, e.g., actuating a pixel can involve setting the appropriate column to +V_bias, and the appropriate row to — ΔV. In this embodiment, releasing the pixel is accomplished by setting the appropriate column to -Vbia_s> and the appropriate row to the same -ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel.

(0042] Figure 5B is a timing diagram showing a series of row and column signals applied to the 3x3 array of Figure 2 which will result in the display arrangement illustrated in Figure 5A, where actuated pixels are non-reflective. Prior to writing the frame illustrated in Figure 5A, the pixels can be in any state, and in this example, all the rows are at 0 volts, and all the columns are at +5 volts. With these applied voltages, all pixels are stable in their existing actuated or relaxed states.

[0043] In the Figure 5A frame, pixels (1,1), (1,2), (2,2), (3,2) and (3,3) are actuated. To accomplish this, during a "line time" for row 1, columns 1 and 2 are set to -5 volts, and column 3 is set to +5 volts. This does not change the state of any pixels, because all the pixels remain in the 3-7 volt stability window. Row 1 is then strobed with a pulse that goes from 0, up to 5 volts, and back to zero. This actuates the (1,1) and (1,2) pixels and relaxes the (1 ,3) pixel. No other pixels in the array are affected. To set row 2 as desired, column 2 is set to -5 volts, and columns 1 and 3 are set to +5 volts. The same strobe applied to row 2 will then actuate pixel (2,2) and relax pixels (2,1) and (2,3). Again, no other pixels of the array are affected. Row 3 is similarly set by setting columns 2 and 3 to -5 volts, and column 1 to +5 volts. The row 3 strobe sets the row 3 pixels as shown in Figure 5A. After writing the frame, the row potentials are zero, and the column potentials can remain at either +5 or -5 volts, and the display is then stable in the arrangement of Figure 5A. It will be appreciated that the same procedure can be employed for arrays of dozens or hundreds of rows and columns. It will also be appreciated that the timing, sequence, and levels of voltages used to perform row and column actuation can be varied widely within the general principles outlined above, and the above example is exemplary only, and any actuation voltage method can be used with • the systems and methods described herein.

[0044] Figures 6A and 6B are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment of a display device 40. The display device 40 can be, for example, a cellular or mobile telephone. However, the same components of display device 40 or slight variations thereof are also illustrative of various types of display devices such as televisions and portable media players. 10045] The display device 40 includes a housing 41, a display 30, an antenna 43, a speaker 44, an input device 48, and a microphone 46. The housing 41 is generally formed from any of a variety of manufacturing processes as are well known to those of skill in the art, including injection molding and vacuum forming. In addition, the housing 41 may be made from any of a variety of materials, including, but not limited to, plastic, metal, glass, rubber, and ceramic, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the housing 41 includes removable portions (not shown) that may be interchanged with other removable portions of different color, or containing different logos, pictures, or symbols.

[0046] The display 30 of exemplary display device 40 may be any of a variety of displays, including a bi-stable display, as described herein. In other embodiments, the display 30 includes a flat-panel display, such as plasma, EL, OLED, STN LCD, or TFT LCD as described above, or a non-flat-panel display, such as a CRT or other tube device, as is well known to those of skill in the art. However, for purposes of describing the present embodiment, the display 30 includes an interferometric modulator display, as described herein.

{0047] The components of one embodiment of exemplary display device 40 are schematically illustrated in Figure 6B. The illustrated exemplary display device 40 includes a housing 41 and can include additional components at least partially enclosed therein. For example, in one embodiment, the exemplary display device 40 includes a network interface 27 that includes an antenna 43, which is coupled to a transceiver 47. The transceiver 47 is connected to a processor 21, which is connected to conditioning hardware 52. The conditioning hardware 52 may be configured to condition a signal (e.g., filter a signal). The conditioning hardware 52 is connected to a speaker 45 and a microphone 46. The processor 21 is also connected to an input device 48 and a driver controller 29. The driver controller 29 is coupled to a frame buffer 28 and to an array driver 22, which in turn is coupled to a display array 30. A power supply 50 provides power to all components as required by the particular exemplary display device 40 design.

[0048] The network interface 27 includes the antenna 43 and the transceiver 47 so that the exemplary display device 40 can communicate with one or more devices over a network. In one embodiment, the network interface 27 may also have some processing capabilities to relieve requirements of the processor 21. The antenna 43 is any antenna known to those of skill in the art for transmitting and receiving signals. In one embodiment, the antenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the IEEE 802.1 1 standard, including IEEE 802.1 l(a), (b), or (g). In another embodiment, the antenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the BLUETOOTH standard. In the case of a cellular telephone, the antenna is designed to receive CDMA, GSM, AMPS, or other known signals that are used to communicate within a wireless cell phone network. The transceiver 47 pre-processes the signals received from the antenna 43 so that they may be received by and further manipulated by the processor 21. The transceiver 47 also processes signals received from the processor 21 so that they may be transmitted from the exemplary display device 40 via the antenna 43.

[0049] In an alternative embodiment, the transceiver 47 can be replaced by a receiver. In yet another alternative embodiment, network interface 27 can be replaced by an image source, which can store or generate image data to be sent to the processor 21. For example, the image source can be a digital video disc (DVD) or a hard-disc drive that contains image data, or a software module that generates image data.

[0050] Processor 21 generally controls the overall operation of the exemplary display device 40. The processor 21 receives data, such as compressed image data from the network interface 27 or an image source, and processes the data into raw image data or into a format that is readily processed into raw image data. The processor 21 then sends the processed data to the driver controller 29 or to frame buffer 28 for storage. Raw data typically refers to the information that identifies the image characteristics at each location within an image. For example, such image characteristics can include color, saturation, and gray-scale level.

[0051 J In one embodiment, the processor 21 includes a microcontroller, CPU, or logic unit to control operation of the exemplary display device 40. Conditioning hardware 52 generally includes amplifiers and filters for transmitting signals to the speaker 45, and for receiving signals from the microphone 46. Conditioning hardware 52 may be discrete components within the exemplary display device 40, or may be incorporated within the processor 21 or other components.

[0052] The driver controller 29 takes the raw image data generated by the processor 21 either directly from the processor 21 or from the frame buffer 28 and reformats the raw image data appropriately for high speed transmission to the array driver 22. Specifically, the driver controller 29 reformats the raw image data into a data flow having a raster-like format, such that it has a time order suitable for scanning across the display array 30. Then the driver controller 29 sends the formatted information to the array driver 22. Although a driver controller 29, such as a LCD controller, is often associated with the system processor 21 as a stand-alone Integrated Circuit (IC), such controllers may be implemented in many ways. They may be embedded in the processor 21 as hardware, embedded in the processor 21 as software, or fully integrated in hardware with the array driver 22.

[0053] Typically, the array driver 22 receives the formatted information from the driver controller 29 and reformats the video data into a parallel set of waveforms that are applied many times per second to the hundreds and sometimes thousands of leads coming from the display's x-y matrix of pixels.

[0054] In one embodiment, the driver controller 29, array driver 22, and display array 30 are appropriate for any of the types of displays described herein. For example, in one embodiment, driver controller 29 is a conventional display controller or a bi-stable display controller (e.g., an interferometric modulator controller). In another embodiment, array driver 22 is a conventional driver or a bi-stable display driver (e.g., an interferometric modulator display). In one embodiment, a driver controller 29 is integrated with the array driver 22. Such an embodiment is common in highly integrated systems such as cellular phones, watches, and other small area displays. In yet another embodiment, display array 30 is a typical display array or a bi-stable display array (e.g., a display including an array of interferometric modulators).

[0055| The input device 48 allows a user to control the operation of the exemplary display device 40. In one embodiment, input device 48 includes a keypad, such as a QWERTY keyboard or a telephone keypad, a button, a switch, a touch-sensitive screen, or a pressure- or heat-sensitive membrane. In one embodiment, the microphone 46 is an input device for the exemplary display device 40. When the microphone 46 is used to input data to the device, voice commands may be provided by a user for controlling operations of the exemplary display device 40.

[0056] Power supply 50 can include a variety of energy storage devices as are well known in the art. For example, in one embodiment, power supply 50 is a rechargeable battery, such as a nickel-cadmium battery or a lithium ion battery. In another embodiment, power supply 50 is a renewable energy source, a capacitor, or a solar cell including a plastic solar cell, and solar-cell paint. In another embodiment, power supply 50 is configured to receive power from a wall outlet. [0057] In some embodiments, control programmability resides, as described above, in a driver controller which can be located in several places in the electronic display system. In some embodiments, control programmability resides in the array driver 22. Those of skill in the art will recognize that the above-described optimizations may be implemented in any number of hardware and/or software components and in various configurations.

[0058J The details of the structure of interferometric modulators that operate in accordance with the principles set forth above may vary widely. For example, Figures 7A-7E illustrate five different embodiments of the movable reflective layer 14 and its supporting structures. Figure 7 A is a cross section of the embodiment of Figure 1, where a strip of metal material 14 is deposited on orthogonally extending supports 18. In Figure 7B, the moveable reflective layer 14 is attached to supports at the corners only, on tethers 32. In Figure 7C, the moveable reflective layer 14 is suspended from a deformable layer 34, which may comprise a flexible metal. The deformable layer 34 connects, directly or indirectly, to the substrate 20 around the perimeter of the deformable layer 34. These connections are herein referred to as support posts. The embodiment illustrated in Figure 7D has support post plugs 42 upon which the deformable layer 34 rests. The movable reflective layer 14 remains suspended over the cavity, as in Figures 7A-7C, but the deformable layer 34 does not form the support posts by filling holes between the deformable layer 34 and the optical stack 16. Rather, the support posts are formed of a planarization material, which is used to form support post plugs 42. The embodiment illustrated in Figure 7E is based on the embodiment shown in Figure 7D, but may also be adapted to work with any of the embodiments illustrated in Figures 7A-7C, as well as additional embodiments not shown. In the embodiment shown in Figure 7E, an extra layer of metal or other conductive material has been used to form a bus structure 44. This allows signal routing along the back of the interferometric modulators, eliminating a number of electrodes that may otherwise have had to be formed on the substrate 20.

[0059J In embodiments such as those shown in Figure 7, the interferometric modulators function as direct-view devices, in which images are viewed from the front side of the transparent substrate 20, the side opposite to that upon which the modulator is arranged. In these embodiments, the reflective layer 14 optically shields the portions of the interferometric modulator on the side of the reflective layer opposite the substrate 20, including the deformable layer 34. This allows the shielded areas to be configured and operated upon without negatively affecting the image quality. Such shielding allows the bus structure 44 in Figure 7E, which provides the ability to separate the optical properties of the modulator from the electromechanical properties of the modulator, such as addressing and the movements that result from that addressing. This separable modulator architecture allows the structural design and materials used for the electromechanical aspects and the optical aspects of the modulator to be selected and to function independently of each other. Moreover, the embodiments shown in Figures 7C-7E have additional benefits deriving from the decoupling of the optical properties of the reflective layer 14 from its mechanical properties, which are carried out by the deformable layer 34. This allows the structural design and materials used for the reflective layer 14 to be optimized with respect to the optical properties, and the structural design and materials used for the deformable layer 34 to be optimized with respect to desired mechanical properties.

[0060] Optimization of the structural design and materials used for the reflective layer (or "mirror layer") 14 and the deformable layer (or "mechanical layer") 34 may result in different materials being used for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34. Different materials may have different properties, such as residual stresses, which can cause curvature and/or tilt in the reflective layer 14. For example, crystalline nickel has an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of about 350 megapascals (MPa) and crystalline aluminum has an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of about 50 MPa. Because the residual stresses are different, an interface between nickel and aluminum will have a stress gradient, which will exert tensile or compressive forces, thereby causing curvature and/or tilt (or "launching" and "deflection") of the material that is more pliable or compliant (e.g., aluminum as compared to nickel). As illustrated in Figure 8, the interface between different materials with mismatched crystal lattices for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34, for example aluminum and nickel, respectively, can cause curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14. Figure 8 generally corresponds to the embodiment depicted by Figure 7C having different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34. The use of different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 may also result in curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14 in the embodiments depicted in Figures 7D and 7E, as well.

[0061] Another property that may be different between different materials is coefficient of thermal expansion. When a device comprising different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 is heated or cooled, thermal stresses due to different amounts of thermal expansion or contraction between the materials used for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 can contribute to the curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14. Thus, the magnitude of curvature and/or tilt is a function of temperature in some embodiments.

[0062] In certain embodiments, stress distribution in the reflective layer 14 is non-uniform because there is a stress gradient in the portion of the reflective layer 14 forming the interface 36, but there is no stress gradient in the other portions of the reflective layer 14. Thus, a smaller interface 36 between the deformable layer 34 and the reflective layer 14 can result in increasingly non-uniform stress distribution across the reflective layer 14, thereby increasing the curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14.

[0063] Curvature and tilt of the reflective layer 14 may affect the size of the hysteresis window and the optical properties of the reflective layer 14. As described above, the row/actuation protocol may be set according to a hysteresis window, so a change in the hysteresis window may cause the device to function improperly or to fail.

[0064] Even if the device works within a given hysteresis window, the changed optical properties may adversely affect performance of a display comprising the device. Preferably, the surface of the reflective layer 14 facing the substrate 20 is substantially parallel to the optical stack 16. However, curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14 may cause the surface of the reflective layer 14 facing the substrate 20 to become non-parallel to the optical stack 16. The reflective layer 14 may reflect differing amounts of visible light across its area, distorting whether the reflective layer 14 is in the "on" or "off position.

[0065] In certain embodiments, the interface between the different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 is positioned away from the reflective layer 14, thereby decreasing the curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14. The stress gradients due to residual stresses, coefficients of thermal expansion, and nonuniform stress distribution can thereby be positioned away from the reflective layer 14 or can be substantially eliminated.

(0066] Figure 9F depicts a cross-sectional view of a device in which the interface 95 between the different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 is spaced from the reflective layer 14. The reflective layer 14 comprises a first material. The first material is preferably optimized with respect to optical properties, such as being reflective to light. Examples of the first material that are reflective to light include, but are not limited to, silver, gold, copper, aluminum, and alloys thereof. The first material may be optimized with respect to optical properties, such as being reflective to ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR) light. Examples of the first material that are reflective to UV and/or IR light include, but are not limited to, zinc, platinum, rhodium, and titanium. The deformable layer 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. The second material is preferably optimized with respect to desired mechanical properties, such as being controUably deformable and providing suitable restoring forces. Examples of the second material include, but are not limited to, nickel, aluminum, aluminum alloys, chromium, nickel alloys (e.g., NiV), and iron.

[0067] In some embodiments, the deformable layer 34 is supported by support posts 33. The support posts 33 preferably comprise a rigid material that does not significantly deform. Examples of the rigid material include, but are not limited to, silicon oxide (SiO₂), silicon nitride (SiN_x), silicon oxynitride (SiO_xNy)₅ aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), spin-on glass ("SOG"), and spin-on dielectric ("SOD"). In certain embodiments, the support posts 33 comprise a conductive material with an insulating material disposed between the support posts 33 and the deformable layer 34. Other configurations, such as those depicted in Figures 7D and 7E, may comprise other support posts 42 that support the deformable layer 34.

[0068] Referring again to Figure 9F, the device further comprises a connecting element 94 mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 34 and the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the connecting element 94 is fused to the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the connecting element 94 comprises the first material. The connecting element 94 preferably comprises conductive material, for example, but not limited to, aluminum, although the connecting element 94 may comprise insulating or semiconductive material. The connecting element 94 may or may not comprise a deformable material. The connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34 form an interface 95 between the first material and the second material. The interface 95 is spaced from the reflective layer 14.

[0069] In certain embodiments, the connecting element 94 does not comprise the first material, but comprises a material with a substantially similar intrinsic crystal lattice stress and/or coefficient of thermal expansion to the portion of the reflective element 14 to which the connecting element is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused). When the residual stresses and coefficient of thermal expansion are substantially similar, the stress gradients are mitigated or eliminated, thereby mitigating or eliminating curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14.

[0070] In certain embodiments, neither the reflective layer 14 nor the connecting element 94 is fused to the deformable layer 34. As such, the reflective layer 14 and the connecting element 94 may be described as "floating." When a force such as gravity and/or an electrostatic force due to an electric field causes the reflective layer 14 and the connecting element 94 to move towards the substrate 20 (e.g., in the direction of the distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field schematically indicated by arrows 96), the portions 93 of the connecting element 94 that overlap the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 impede the reflective layer 14 from falling onto the optical stack 16. Upon activation, during which the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 are deflected, the reflective layer 14 is moved closer to the optical stack 16, as depicted on the right side of Figure 9F. Upon relaxation, the electrostatic force due to an electric field is removed, and the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 9F.

[0071] Once the connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34 are in contact, adhesion forces (e.g., van der Waals forces) between the connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34 keep the reflective layer 14 from moving translationally and keep the connecting element 94 from disconnecting from the deformable layer 34. A larger area of the interface 95 between the connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34 results in stronger adhesion forces holding the connecting element 94 to the deformable layer 34. In some embodiments, the terminal edges of the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 near the interface 95 are curled downward or upward (e.g., as illustrated in Figure 9F) due to the mismatched residual stresses between the materials of the connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34. For example, in an embodiment in which the deformable layer 34 comprises nickel with tensile stress and the posts 33 comprise silicon dioxide with compressive stress, the terminal edges of the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 are curled upwards. The area of the interface 95 may depend on the width and profile of the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34, the width and profile of the portions 93 of the connecting element 94, the materials used for the deformable layer 34 and the connecting element 94, photolithography critical dimension and alignment considerations, the smoothness of the top of the deformable layer 34 and the bottom of the connecting element 94, and other factors. The interface 95 in certain embodiments has an area between about 80 and 1 ,440 square microns, and in certain other embodiments has an area between about 144 and 512 square microns. Other areas of the interface 95 are also possible.

[0072] In certain embodiments, the interface 95 between the connecting element 94 and the deformable layer 34 is spaced from the interface between the posts 33 and the deformable layer 34. The rigidity of the posts 33 can impede the deformable layer 34 from deforming. In certain embodiments, the posts 33 have cantilever portions 35, and the sizes of these cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33 are minimized in order to increase the area available for the interface 95.

[00731 Figures 9A through 9F illustrate cross-sectional views of one method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. It will be appreciated that some embodiments may add, delete, rearrange, change, substitute, or otherwise modify the processes described herein.

[0074] Figure 9A depicts an interferometric modulator after the formation on a substrate 20 of an optical stack 16, a reflective layer 14 comprising a first material, a sacrificial layer 17 over the reflective layer 14, and a deformable layer 34 comprising a second material over the sacrificial layer 17. Removal of the sacrificial layer 17 at this point would result in the structure illustrated in Figure 8. Because the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 may comprise different materials, this device may experience curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14, as described above.

[0075] Alternative processing can result in interferometric modulators with reflective layers 14 that do not substantially experience curvature and/or tilt resulting from the use of different materials for the deformable layer 34 and the reflective layer 14. For example, in certain embodiments, a connecting element comprising the first material that is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 is formed, and is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 34 to form an interface between the first material and the second material that is spaced from the reflective layer 14.

[0076] Figure 9B depicts the device of Figure 9A after a hole 90 has been formed through the deformable layer 34 to uncover at least a portion of the reflective layer 14. Formation of the hole 90 also results in formation of the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 that at least partially extend beyond the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33. In certain embodiments, the deformable layer 34 contacts the reflective layer 14 (as depicted by Figure 9A) due to the formation of a hole through the sacrificial layer 17. The hole through the sacrificial layer 17 may be formed, for example, at the same time that the sacrificial layer 17 is patterned to define individual devices. The hole 90 may be formed by creating a pattern on top of the deformable layer 34 (e.g., with photoresist) and removing the portions of the deformable layer 34 not covered by the patterned material' (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching). In embodiments in which the hole 90 has tapered sides through the deformable layer 34, removal of the deformable layer 34 is preferably performed by wet etching and/or anisotropic dry etching. In some embodiments, some of the sacrificial layer 17 is also removed.

[0077] In certain embodiments, no hole is formed in the sacrificial material 17 prior to deposition of the deformable layer 34. As such, the deformable layer 34 does not contact the reflective layer 14 (e.g., due to the sacrificial layer 17 remaining between the deformable layer 34 and the reflective layer 14). The hole 90 may be formed through both the deformable layer 34 and the sacrificial layer 17 by creating a pattern on top of the deformable layer 34 (e.g., with photoresist), removing the portions of the deformable layer 34 not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching), and removing the portions of the sacrificial layer 17 under the removed portions of the mechanical layer 34 in the same or a subsequent removal process. In embodiments in which the hole 90 has tapered sides through the deformable layer 34 and the sacrificial layer 17, removal of the deformable layer 34 and/or the sacrificial layer 17 is preferably performed by wet etching and/or anisotropic dry etching.

[0078] Figure 9C depicts the device of Figure 9B after a sacrificial spacer 92 has. been formed in the hole 90. Formation of the sacrificial spacer 92 leaves at least a portion of the reflective layer 14 uncovered such that materials deposited over the sacrificial spacer 92 may be mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial spacer 92 overlaps the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 but does not overlap the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial spacer 92 is formed by depositing the sacrificial spacer material (e.g., by chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, etc.), creating a pattern on top of the sacrificial spacer material (e.g., with photoresist), and removing the portions of the sacrificial spacer not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching). [0079] Figure 9D depicts the device of Figure 9C after a connecting element 94 has been formed. The connecting element 94 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 at the portion of the reflective layer 14 not covered by the sacrificial spacer 92. The connecting element 94 includes portions 93 that at least partially overlap the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 but do not overlap the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33. In certain embodiments, the connecting element 94 is formed by depositing the first material at least partially within the sacrificial spacer 92 and mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 (e.g., by chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, etc.), creating a pattern on top of the first material (e.g., with photoresist), and removing the portions of the first material not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching).

[0080] Figure 9E depicts the device of Figure 9D after the sacrificial layer 17 and the sacrificial spacer 92 have been removed. The connecting element 94 remains mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14, but the connecting element 94 is not mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 34. In this state, the reflective layer 14 can be said to be "floating." In certain embodiments, the sacrificial layer 17 and/or the sacrificial spacer 92 are removed by etching (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching), either in the same process or in different processes. In some embodiments, the sacrificial layer 17 and the sacrificial spacer 92 are removed by etching with xenon difluoride (XeF₂). After removal of the sacrificial layer 17 and the sacrificial spacer 92, the stresses between the posts 33 and the deformable layer 34 can cause the more compliant material, typically the deformable layer 34, to experience launching and/or deflection. In certain embodiments, the launching and/or deflection can cause the edges of the cantilevers 37 curl upwards. Such curling of the edges of the cantilevers 37 can be advantageous because the cantilevers 37 may thereby make contact with the connecting element 93 when it is floating.

[0081] Figure 9F depicts the device of Figure 9E after the connecting element 94 has moved towards the substrate 20, for example due to gravity and/or an electrostatic force due to an electric field, thereby forming an interface 95 between the first material and the second material. When the connecting element 94 contacts the deformable layer 34, the connecting element 94 may adhere to the deformable layer 34 as described above. The resulting cavity 19 between the reflective layer 14 and the optical stack 16 provides US2007/014511

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space in which the reflective layer 14 can move between the actuated position and the relaxed position in response to the application of a voltage, as described above.

[0082] Figure 1OC depicts a cross-sectional view of another device in which an interface 105 between the different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 is spaced from the reflective layer 14. Unlike the embodiment depicted in Figure 9F, the connecting element 104 is fused to the deformable layer 34 at the interface 105, so the area of the interface 105 is not optimized to maximize adhesion. The interface 105 in certain embodiments has an area between about 60 and 780 square microns, and in certain other embodiments has an area between about 80 and 275 square microns. Other areas of the interface 105 are also possible. Similar to the embodiment depicted in Figure 9F, the interface 105 between the first material and the second material is spaced from the reflective layer 14.

[0083] When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 1OC, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure 1OC, the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The material that the deformable layer 34 comprises can be optimized to restorably deform when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 106) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position.

[0084] Figures 1OA through 1OC illustrate cross-sectional views of another method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. Figure 1OA depicts the device of Figure 9B after a sacrificial spacer 102 has been formed in the hole 90. The sacrificial spacer 102 leaves at least a portion of the reflective layer 14 uncovered such that materials deposited over the sacrificial spacer 102 may be mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) with the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial spacer 102 overlaps the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 but does not overlap the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial spacer 102 is formed by depositing the sacrificial spacer material (e.g., by chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, etc.), creating a pattern on top of the sacrificial spacer material (e.g., with photoresist), and removing the portions of the sacrificial spacer material not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching).

[00851 Figure 1OB depicts the device of Figure 1OA after a connecting element

104 has been formed. The connecting element 104 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 at the portion of the reflective layer 14 not covered by the sacrificial spacer 102. The connecting element 104 overlaps the sacrificial spacer 102 such that the connecting element 104 is fused to the deformable layer 34 at the interface

105 between the first material and the second material. The connecting element 104 includes portions 103 that at least partially overlap the cantilevers 37 of the deformable layer 34 but do not overlap the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33. In certain embodiments, the connecting element 104 is formed by depositing the first material at least partially within the sacrificial spacer 102 and mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 (e.g., by chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, etc.), creating a pattern on top of the first material (e.g., with photoresist), and removing the portions of the first material not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching).

[0086) Figure 1OC depicts the device of Figure 1OB after the sacrificial layer 17 and the sacrificial spacer 102 have been removed. The connecting element 104 remains mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 and fused to the deformable layer 34. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial layer 17 and/or the sacrificial spacer 102 are removed by etching (e.g., by wet etching), either in the same process or in different processes. The resulting cavity 19 between the reflective layer 14 and the optical stack 16 provides space in which the reflective layer 14 can move between the actuated position and the relaxed position in response to the application of a voltage, as described above.

[0087] Figure HC depicts a cross-sectional view of another device in which an interface 1 15 between the different materials for the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 is spaced from the reflective layer 14. Unlike the embodiments depicted in Figures 9F and 1OC, the interface 115 between the connecting element 1 14 and the deformable layer 34 is below the deformable layer 34. Similar to the embodiment depicted in Figure 1OC, the connecting element 114 is fused to the deformable layer 34, so the area of the interface 115 is not optimized to maximize adhesion. Similar to the embodiment depicted in Figures 9F and 1OC, the interface 1 15 between the first material and the second material is spaced from the reflective layer 14.

[0088] When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 11C, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure HC₅ the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The second material 112 that the deformable layer 34 comprises can be optimized to restorably deform when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 116) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed from the reflective layer 14, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position.

[0089] Figures 1 IA through 11C illustrate cross-sectional views of yet another method of manufacturing an interferometric modulator in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. Figure 1 IA depicts an embodiment in which forming the deformable layer 34 and the connecting element 114 comprises depositing a first material 1 1 1 so that a portion of the first material 11 1 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 and depositing a second material 1 12 on top of the first material 111. In certain embodiments, the first material 111 comprises the same material as the first material of the reflective layer 14 and the second material 112 comprises the same material as the second material of the deformable layer 34. The first material 111 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the first material 111 does not substantially overlap the entire structure of the posts 33 in order to increase the rigidity of the posts 33. For example, the first material 111 may be patterned such that the first material 11 1 overlaps the cantilever portions 35 of the posts 33 but not the other portions of the posts 33.

[009Oj Figure 1 IB depicts the device of Figure 1 IA after a connecting element 114 has been formed. The connecting element 1 14 in the embodiment depicted by Figure HB is further formed by removing at least a portion of the second material 112 formed over the portion of the first material 1 11 that is mechanically coupled to the reflective layer 14. The interface 115 between the first material 1 1 1 and the second material 1 12 is below the deformable layer 34 and is spaced from the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, the connecting element 114 is formed by creating a pattern on top of the second material 1 12 (e.g., with photoresist) and removing the portions of the second material 1 12 not covered by the patterned material (e.g., by wet and/or dry etching). In some embodiments, removing the portions of the second material 112 not covered by the patterned material comprises selectively etching the second material 1 12 such that at least some of the first material 111 beneath the removed portions of the second material 112 remains. In some embodiments, the first material 1 11 is thick enough that the first material remains fused to the reflective layer 14 even if some of the first material 1 1 1 is removed. The remaining second material 112 is preferably spaced from the area where the first material 1 1 1 is fused to the reflective layer 14, but is also preferably large enough to provide suitable restoring forces.

[0091] Figure HC depicts the device of Figure HB after the sacrificial layer 17 has been removed. The connecting element 114 remains mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the reflective layer 14 and is fused to the second material 1 12. In certain embodiments, the sacrificial layer 17 is removed by etching (e.g., by wet etching). The resulting cavity 19 between the reflective layer 14 and the optical stack 16 provides space in which the reflective layer 14 to move between the actuated position and the relaxed position in response to the application of a voltage, as described above.

[0092] In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated by Figure 12, the thickness of the reflective layer 14 is selected so that the stress gradients due to residual stresses, coefficients of thermal expansion, and non-uniform stress distribution do not cause significant curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14. In some embodiments, a thickness of more than about one micron is advantageously used. While Figure 12 depicts a configuration in which the interface 125 between the first material and the second material is adjacent to the reflective layer 14, in certain embodiments, the thickness of the reflective layer 14 is selected to reduce any curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14 in configurations as described above with the interface spaced from the reflective layer 14.

[0093] When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 12, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure 12, the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The deformable layer 34 deforms when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 126) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed from the reflective layer 14, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position.

[0094] In certain embodiments, the reflective layer 14 comprises a first material and the deformable layer 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. The reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 form a junction, and the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 have substantially equal internal stresses at the junction. As used herein, the term "substantially equal internal stresses" is to be given its broadest possible meaning, including, but not limited to, internal stresses that are similar enough that the curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14 is suitably decreased. The substantial equality of the internal stresses depends on factors such as materials, thicknesses, contact area, and coefficients of thermal expansion. In certain embodiments, the difference in internal stresses between the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 that is substantially equal at the junction is less than about 150 MPa, less than about 60 MPa, and less than about 10. It will be appreciated that substantially equal may also mean that the internal stresses are the same, for example and without limitation when the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 comprise the same material at the junction. In some embodiments, the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 have substantially equal coefficients of thermal expansion at the junction.

[0095] Figure 13 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a device in which the reflective layer 14 comprises a first material and in which the deformable layer 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. The deformable layer 34 is mechanically coupled to the reflective layer 14 at a junction 135. The reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 have substantially equal internal stresses at the junction 135. The reflective layer 14 comprises a reflective layer 132 on a side of the reflective layer 14 facing away from the deformable layer 34.

[0096] In some embodiments, the reflective layer 14 comprises a bilayer comprising a reflective layer 132 comprising the first material on a side of the reflective layer 14 facing away from the deformable layer 34 and a layer 131 of the second material. At the junction 135, the deformable layer 34 comprises the second material and the reflective layer 14 comprises the second material, so the internal stresses of the deformable layer 34 and the reflective layer 14 are substantially equal. In certain embodiments, the first material comprises aluminum and the second material comprises nickel. The term "bilayer" is not to be limiting, and the reflective layer 14 may comprise more than two layers, for example by inserting a third layer between the reflective layer 132 and the layer 131 of the second material. Although there may be some stress gradients at an interface between the reflective layer 132 and the layer 131 of the second material within the reflective layer 14, the reflective layer 132 is thin compared to the layer 131 of the second material. In some embodiments, the reflective layer 132 comprises less than about 20%, less than about 10%, or less than about 3% of the thickness of the reflective layer 14. In certain embodiments, formation of the bilayer comprises deposition of the reflective layer 132 and deposition of the layer 131 of the second material over the reflective layer 132.

[00971 When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 13, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure 13, the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The second material can be optimized to restorably deform when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 136) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed from the reflective layer 14, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position (e.g., as illustrated on the left side of Figure 13).

[0098 J Figure 14 depicts a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a device in which the reflective layer 14 comprises a first material and in which the deformable layer 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. The deformable layer 34 is mechanically coupled to the reflective layer 14 at a junction 145. The reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 have substantially equal internal stresses at the junction 145. The reflective layer 14 has a graded composition that varies from a first side 141 proximate to the deformable layer 34 to a second side 142 of the reflective layer 14 distal from the deformable layer 34. As used herein, the term "graded" is to be given its broadest possible definition, including, but not limited to, having a composition that varies generally continuously (e.g., linearly, non-linearly) across its thickness and having a composition that varies in a step-wise manner or non-continuously across its thickness. The reflective layer 14 is reflective at the second side 142 of the reflective layer 14.

10099] In certain embodiments, the reflective layer 14 comprises the first material throughout its thickness, and the internal stress of the first material is modified during deposition by varying at least one deposition parameter such that the internal stresses of the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 at the junction 145 are substantially equal. Examples of deposition parameters that may be varied to modify the properties of the reflective layer 14 include, but are not limited to, temperature, pressure, power, deposition duration, the first material precursors, and the flowrate of the first material precursors.

[0100] As an example, in an embodiment in which the first material comprises aluminum and the deformable layer 34 comprises nickel with an internal crystal lattice stress of 350 MPa at the junction 145, the reflective layer 14 may comprise the first material with a first intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa at the second side 142 and a second intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 300 MPa at the first side 141. At the junction 145, the deformable layer 34 has an internal stress of 350 MPa and the reflective layer 14 has an internal stress of 300 MPa, so the internal stresses are substantially equal, in this embodiment with a difference of 50 MPa.

[0101] In certain embodiments, the properties of the deformable layer 34 are modified during deposition by varying at least one deposition parameter. As an example, in an embodiment in which the second material comprises nickel and the reflective layer 14 comprises aluminum with an internal crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa at the junction 145, the deformable layer 34 may comprise the second material with a first intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 350 MPa at a first side 143 distal from the reflective layer 14 and a second intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 100 MPa at a second side 144 proximate to the reflective layer 14. At the junction 145, the deformable layer 34 has an internal stress of 100 MPa and the reflective layer 14 has an internal stress of 50 MPa, so the internal stresses are substantially equal, in this embodiment with a difference of 50 MPa.

[0102] In certain embodiments, the properties of both the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 are modified during deposition. As an example, the reflective layer 14 may comprise the first material comprising aluminum with a first intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa at the first side 141 and a second intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 200 MPa at the second side 142, and the deformable layer 34 may comprise the second material comprising nickel with an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 350 MPa at the first side 143 and an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 200 MPa at the second side 144. At the junction 145, the deformable layer 34 has in internal stress of 200 MPa and the reflective layer 14 has an internal stress of 200 MPa, so the internal stresses are substantially equal, in this embodiment with a difference of zero MPa.

[0103] In certain embodiments, the reflective layer 14 with a graded composition comprises an alloy. In certain embodiments, the alloy comprises at least one element of the second material. For example, the alloy may comprise the first material comprising a reflective material and the second material comprising a deformable material. The reflective layer 14 comprises substantially all reflective first material on a side 142 of the reflective layer 14 facing away from the deformable layer 34 and substantially all deformable second material on a side 141 proximate to the junction 145 of the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34. The deformable layer 34 comprises the deformable second material, so the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 have substantially equal internal stresses at the junction 145.

[0104] In certain embodiments, the second side 142 of the reflective layer 14 comprises substantially all aluminum and the first side 141 of the reflective layer 14 comprises substantially all nickel, with the ratio of aluminum to nickel decreasing within the reflective layer 14 from the second side 142 to the first side 141. The graded composition of the reflective layer 14 may comprise different ratios of the first material to the second material by altering deposition parameters, for example, but not limited to, temperature, pressure, power, first and second material precursors, and the ratio of the flowrates of the first and second material precursors. For example, the precursors may comprise substantially all first material precursor, then an increasing amount of second material precursor and a decreasing amount of first material precursor, then substantially all second material precursor. For another example, the precursors may comprise substantially all first material precursor, then an increasing amount of second material precursor with a constant amount of first material precursor, then substantially all second material precursor. In certain embodiments, the second side 142 comprises aluminum with an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa and the first side 141 comprises nickel with an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 350 MPa.

[0105] When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 14, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure 14, the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The second material can be optimized to restorably deform when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 146) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed from the reflective layer 14, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed slate and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position (e.g., as illustrated on the left side of Figure 14).

[0106] The curvature and/or tilt of the reflective layer 14 may also be decreased by using combinations of the embodiments of Figures 13 and 14 (e.g., a bilayer with one or both layers having a graded composition). Figure 15 depicts a cross-sectional view of yet another embodiment of a device in which the reflective layer 14 comprises a first material and in which the deformable layer 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. The reflective layer 14 comprises a reflective layer 152, for example comprising aluminum with an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa. The deformable layer 34 comprises, for example, nickel with an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 350 MPa. The reflective layer 14 further comprises a graded composition having an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 50 MPa at a side 153 distal to the junction of the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 and an intrinsic crystal lattice stress of 300 MPa at a side 151 proximate to the junction of the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34. The junction of the reflective layer 14 and the deformable layer 34 comprises materials having substantially similar internal stresses. Such an embodiment advantageously allows any thickness of the reflective layer 152 in comparison to the thickness of the reflective layer 15.

|0107] When the reflective layer 14 is in a relaxed position, as depicted on the left side of Figure 15, the deformable layer 34 is in a relaxed state. When the reflective layer 14 is in an actuated position, as depicted on the right side of Figure 15, the deformable layer 34 is in a deformed state. The second material can be optimized to restorably deform when a force (e.g., in the direction of a distributed electrostatic force due to an electric field as schematically indicated by arrows 156) attracts the reflective layer 14 towards the substrate 20. When the force is removed from the reflective layer 14, the deformable layer 34 returns to the relaxed state and the reflective layer 14 returns to the relaxed position.

[0108] Other MEMS devices, for example switches, may also benefit from the optimization of the structural design and materials used to form the device, and may result in different materials being used for a deformable layer and a functional layer connected to the deformable layer that is preferably flat. Similar to the reflective layer in interferometric modulators, the use of different materials that have different properties can cause curvature and/or tilt in the functional layer.

[0109] Figures 16A through 16D depict an example switch, which may also be called an "ohmic switch," a "series switch," a "MEMS relay," or other suitable names, with different materials for a contact layer 162 and a deformable layer 34 to which the contact layer 162 is connected and/or different materials for an actuation electrode 168 and the deformable layer 34 to which the actuation electrode 168 is connected. Figures 16A and 16C illustrate cross-sectional side views of a switch in a relaxed position and an actuated position, respectively, in which the contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168 comprise a first material and the deformable layer 34 comprises a second material. Figures 16B and 16D illustrate cross-sectional front views of the switches of Figures 16A and 16C, respectively.

[0110] Benefits may derive from using different materials for the contact layer 162 and/or the actuation electrode 168 and for the deformable layer 34, for example to decouple the electrical properties of the contact layer 162 and/or trie actuation electrode 168 from the mechanical properties of the deformable layer 34. For example, the structural design and materials used for the contact layer 162 and/or the actuation electrode 168 can be optimized with respect to the electrical properties, and the structural design and materials used for the deformable layer 34 can be optimized with respect to desired mechanical properties. In certain embodiments, the contact layer 162 and/or the actuation electrode 168 comprises a conductive material (e.g., aluminum, copper, gold) and the deformable layer 34 comprises an insulating material (e.g., SiO₂, SiN_x).

[0111] However, curvature and/or tilt of the contact layer 162 and/or the actuation electrode 168 (as depicted in Figures 16A through 16D) resulting from stress gradients may affect the electromechanical response of the switch. For example, different distances between the actuation electrode 168 and the electrode 166 can affect the response time and actuation voltage of the switch. The actuation voltage of the switch may be set according to the distance between the actuation electrode 168 and the electrode 166, so a change in the distance between the actuation electrode 168 and the electrode 166 may cause the device to function improperly or to fail. Moreover, the surface of the contact layer 162 facing the substrate 20 is preferably substantially parallel to the substrate 20. However, curvature and/or tilt of the contact layer 162 may cause the surface of the contact layer 162 facing the substrate 20 to become non-parallel to the substrate 20. The contacting portions of the contact layer 162 may not make full contact with the leads 163, 164 (as depicted in Figures 16C and 16D), thereby impeding the conductance of an electrical signal.

[0112] Figures 17A and 17C illustrate cross-sectional side views of an embodiment of a switch in a relaxed position and an actuated position, respectively, in which the contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168 comprise a first material and the deformable material 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. Figures 17B and 17D illustrate cross-sectional front views of the switches of Figures 17A and 17C, respectively. In accordance with an embodiment described above with respect to Figure 9F, a connecting elements 169 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the deformable layer 34 and the contact layer 162 and the deformable layer 34 and a connecting element 171 is mechanically coupled (e.g., fused) to the actuation electrode 168 and the deformable layer 34. The connecting elements 169, 171 form interfaces 165, 167 between the first material and the second material. The connecting elements 169, 171 may be the same or the connecting element 169 may be different from the connecting element 171. The interfaces 165, 167 between the first material and the second material are spaced from the contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168, respectively, thereby causing the distances between the contact layer 162 and the leads 163, 164 to be substantially the same and the surface of the contact layer 162 facing the substrate 20 to be substantially parallel to the substrate 20 and causing the distance between the actuation electrode 168 and the electrode 166 to be substantially the same and the surface of the actuation electrode facing the substrate 20 to be substantially parallel to the substrate 20. It will be understood that the switch may also be in accordance with the embodiments depicted in Figures 10 through 12, combinations thereof, and the like. For example, the connecting element 171 may be fused to the actuation electrode 168 while the connecting element 169 is adhered to the contact layer 162.

[0113] Figures 18A and 18C illustrate cross-sectional side views of another embodiment of a switch in a relaxed position and an actuated position, respectively, in which the contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168 comprise a first material and the deformable material 34 comprises a second material different from the first material. Figures 18B and 18D illustrate cross-sectional front views of the switches of Figures 18A and 18C, respectively. In accordance with an embodiment described above with respect to Figure 13, the deformable layer 34 is mechanically coupled to the contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168 at junctions 175, 177, respectively. The contact layer 162 and the actuation electrode 168 have substantially equal internal stresses with the deformable layer 34 at the junctions 175, 177, thereby causing the distances between the contact layer 162 and the leads 163, 164 to be substantially the same and the surface of the contact layer 162 facing the substrate 20 to be substantially parallel to the substrate 20 and causing the distance between the actuation electrode 168 and the electrode 166 to be substantially the same and the surface of the actuation electrode facing the substrate 20 to be substantially parallel to the substrate 20. It will be understood that the switch may also be in accordance with the embodiments depicted in Figures 14 and 15, combinations thereof, and the like. For example, the actuation electrode 168 may comprise a bilayer while the contact layer 162 has a graded composition that varies from a first side of the contact layer 162 proximate to the deformable layer 34 to a second side of the contact layer 162 distal from the deformable layer 34.

J0114] Various specific embodiments have been described above. Although the invention has been described with reference to these specific embodiments, the descriptions are intended to be illustrative of the invention and are not intended to be limiting. Various modifications and applications may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the true scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprising: a functional layer comprising a first material; a deformable layer comprising a second material different from the first material; and a connecting element comprising the first material, the connecting element mechanically coupled to the deformable layer and the functional layer, wherein the connecting element and the deformable layer form an interface between the first material and the second material, the interface spaced from the functional layer.

2. The MEMS device of Claim 1 , wherein the functional layer has a thickness greater than about 1 micron.

3. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the functional layer comprises a reflective layer.

4. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the functional layer comprises a contact layer and wherein the second material is substantially insulating.

5. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the first material comprises a conductive material.

6. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the first material comprises aluminum and the second material comprises nickel.

7. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the interface is above the deformable layer.

8. The MEMS device of Claim 7, wherein the connecting element is adhered to the deformable layer.

9. The MEMS device of Claim 8, wherein the interface has an area between about 80 and 1 ,440 square microns.

10. The MEMS device of Claim 8, wherein the interface has an area between about 144 and 512 square microns.

11. The MEMS device of Claim 7, wherein the connecting element is fused to the deformable layer.

12. The MEMS device of Claim 1, wherein the interface is below the deformable layer.

13. The MEMS device of Claim 12, wherein the connecting element is fused to the deformable layer.

14. The MEMS device of Claim 12, wherein the interface has an area between about 60 and 780 square microns.

15. The MEMS device of Claim 12, wherein the interface has an area between about 80 and 275 square microns.

16. The MEMS device of Claim 1 , further comprising: a display; a processor that is configured to communicate with said display, said processor being configured to process image data; and a memory device that is configured to communicate with said processor.

17. The MEMS device of Claim 16, further comprising a driver circuit configured to send at least one signal to the display.

18. The MEMS device of Claim 17, further comprising a controller configured to send at least a portion of the image data to the driver circuit.

19. The MEMS device of Claim 16, further comprising an image source module configured to send said image data to said processor.

20. The MEMS device of Claim 19, wherein the image source module comprises at least one of a receiver, transceiver, and transmitter.

21. The MEMS device of Claim 16, further comprising an input device configured to receive input data and to communicate said input data to said processor.

22. A microelectromechanical (MEMS)- device comprising: means for controlling a signal, the controlling means comprising a first material; means for supporting the controlling means, the supporting means comprising a second material different from the first material; and means for coupling the controlling means with the supporting means, the coupling means comprising the first material, the coupling means mechanically coupled to the supporting means and the controlling means, wherein the coupling means and the supporting means form an interface between the first material and the second material, the interface spaced from the controlling means.

23. The device of Claim 22, wherein the supporting means comprises a mechanical layer.

24. The device of Claim 22, wherein the controlling means comprises a reflective layer that controllably reflects an electromagnetic signal.

25. The device of Claim 22, wherein the controlling means comprises a conductive layer that controllably conducts an electrical signal.

26. The device of Claim 22, wherein the coupling means comprises a connecting element.

27. A method of manufacturing a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device on a substrate, the method comprising: forming a functional layer comprising a first material; forming a sacrificial layer over the functional layer; forming a deformable layer comprising a second material over the sacrificial layer, the second material different from the first material; forming a connecting element comprising the first material, the connecting element fused to the functional layer; removing the sacrificial layer; and mechanically coupling the connecting element to the deformable layer, wherein the connecting element and the deformable layer form an interface between the first material and the second material, the interface spaced from the functional layer.

28. The method of Claim 27, wherein forming the connecting element comprises: forming a first hole through the deformable layer and the sacrificial layer to uncover at least a portion of the functional layer; forming a sacrificial spacer in the hole; and depositing the first material at least partially within the sacrificial spacer and fused to the functional layer.

29. The method of Claim 28, further comprising removing the sacrificial spacer.

30. The method of Claim 28, wherein the sacrificial spacer at least partially overlaps the deformable layer.

31. The method of Claim 28, wherein forming the sacrificial spacer comprises tapering the sides of the sacrificial spacer that contact the uncovered portion of the functional layer.

32. The method of Claim 27, further comprising adhering the connecting element to the deformable layer.

33. The method of Claim 27, further comprising fusing the connecting element to the deformable layer.

34. The method of Claim 27, wherein forming the connecting element comprises: forming a first hole through the sacrificial layer to uncover at least a portion of the functional layer; depositing the first material on top of sacrificial layer and below the deformable layer, the first material fusing to the first material of the functional layer in the portion of the. functional layer uncovered by the first hole; and removing a portion of the second material proximate to the first hole.

35. The method of Claim 34, wherein depositing the first material comprises physical vapor deposition of the first material.

36. The method of Claim 34, wherein removing the portion of the second material comprises: forming a pattern over the deformable layer; and etching the second material uncovered by the pattern.

37. The method of Claim 36, wherein etching the second material comprises selectively etching the second material and negligibly etching the first material.

38. A microelectromechanical (MEMS) device fabricated by the method of Claim 27.