WO2000074850A9 - Microfluidic devices for transverse electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing - Google Patents
Microfluidic devices for transverse electrophoresis and isoelectric focusingInfo
- Publication number
- WO2000074850A9 WO2000074850A9 PCT/US2000/014697 US0014697W WO0074850A9 WO 2000074850 A9 WO2000074850 A9 WO 2000074850A9 US 0014697 W US0014697 W US 0014697W WO 0074850 A9 WO0074850 A9 WO 0074850A9
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- WIPO (PCT)
- Prior art keywords
- particles
- microchannel
- fluid
- outlet
- electrodes
- Prior art date
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Classifications
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N27/00—Investigating or analysing materials by the use of electric, electrochemical, or magnetic means
- G01N27/26—Investigating or analysing materials by the use of electric, electrochemical, or magnetic means by investigating electrochemical variables; by using electrolysis or electrophoresis
- G01N27/416—Systems
- G01N27/447—Systems using electrophoresis
- G01N27/44756—Apparatus specially adapted therefor
- G01N27/44795—Isoelectric focusing
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N27/00—Investigating or analysing materials by the use of electric, electrochemical, or magnetic means
- G01N27/26—Investigating or analysing materials by the use of electric, electrochemical, or magnetic means by investigating electrochemical variables; by using electrolysis or electrophoresis
- G01N27/416—Systems
- G01N27/447—Systems using electrophoresis
- G01N27/44756—Apparatus specially adapted therefor
- G01N27/44769—Continuous electrophoresis, i.e. the sample being continuously introduced, e.g. free flow electrophoresis [FFE]
Definitions
- Microchannels in a glass wafer were fabricated using photolithography and chemical etching. A voltage of 3kV was applied across electrodes placed at the ends of the microchannel. As with all such high voltage application, the generation of O 2 and H 2 by electrolysis required that the electrodes be vented.
- the vast majority of known biological particles have charged surface groups. Of these particles, a large fraction are amphoteric, i.e., the net charge can be either positive or negative depending on local buffer conditions and under certain conditions the particle will be neutrally charged.
- This invention provides microfluidic devices that can rapidly and continuously fractionate a heterogeneous mixture of particles and then concentrate target particles based on the surface charge of the particle. Devices of this invention, for example, can provide improved detection of airborne biological and chemical warfare agents through preconditioning of a sample stream exiting an air sampler.
- Isoelectric focusing can be used, either alone or with other techniques such as sedimentation and electrophoresis, to isolate and concentrate particles of interest from interferent particles, such as dust and pollen, to improve the efficiency of downstream analysis.
- the devices of this invention can also be used to quantify the particles of interest without interference from other uninteresting particles in the sample.
- the devices and methods of this invention can specifically be applied to biological agent detection and to the separation of biological agents and the detection and identification of separated agents.
- the devices and methodologies described herein are generally applicable in any areas in which separation and/or identification of particles in a fluid stream is desirable.
- Electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing techniques are well suited to rapid isolation and detection of biological particles, of known or unknown identity and/or concentration. These processes can, for example, provide the basis of a first-pass, nonspecific screen for unknown biologies in extraterrestrial samples. Based on the results of these screens, voltages and flow rate can easily be modified to change the range and specificity of the surface charge selection.
- Microfluidic devices are particularly amenable to electrophoresis-based applications.
- the small channel dimensions of microfluidic devices allow one to generate electric fields on the order of 25 V/cm in a microfluidic channel, while keeping the applied voltage low.
- Given a typical electrophoretic mobility of about 1 ⁇ m/s/V/cm the resulting terminal velocity of 25 ⁇ m/s allows a particle to travel across a 500 ⁇ m channel in only 20 seconds.
- energy consumption is reduced and gas bubble production at the electrodes is minimized or even eliminated so that no degassing membranes or other degassing components are required.
- Other benefits of using microfluidic technologies include reduction of required reagent and sample size.
- the devices and methods of this invention can be implemented in a variety of known microfluidic devices, such as the T-sensor (U.S. Patent Nos. 5,716,852 and 5,972,710) and H-filter (U.S. Patent No. 5,932,100).
- the present invention relates to implementing zone electrophoresis (ZE) and isoelectric focusing (IEF), in which the electric field is applied perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow. These methods allow continuous sample processing and novel devices are required to perform them.
- ZE zone electrophoresis
- IEF isoelectric focusing
- Electrodes close together e.g., about 10 ⁇ m to about 2.5 to 5 mm apart, means that lower voltages can be used.
- the gap between the electrodes (channel width) and voltages can be optimized for particle movement across the channel by those skilled in the art without undue experimentation.
- FIG. 3 A shows an exploded view of a polymeric laminate electrochemical flow cell of this invention.
- the device comprises top 110, equipped with fluid vias 112, which covers upper cap 114 in which upper channel cutout 115 has been cut, under which electrode substrates 118 are placed with a gap between them corresponding to upper channel cutout 115 and lower channel cutout 123 formed in lower cap 122 which is placed beneath the electrode substrates 118.
- the electrode substrates 118 are coated with deposited gold layers 120 (folded into the electrodes).
- Flow cell end caps 116 are provided adjacent to electrode substrates 118. Observation window 124 at the bottom allows viewing of the fluid within the channel formed by channel cutouts 115 and 123 and the gap between electrode substrates 118.
- Figure 3B shows the assembled device of Figure 3 A. In this view it can be seen how the fluid vias 112 of top 110 open into first channel inlet 130, second channel inlet 132, first channel outlet 134 and second channel outlet 136.
- the dotted box is the region of imaging (ROI) 126 where behavior of particles within the flow channel formed by the cutouts 115 and 123 and electrode substrate 118 is interrogated.
- ROI imaging
- FIG 4 is a side view of an embodiment of the flow cell of this invention constructed of Mylar.
- Mylar sheets 140 (.004 in.) form the top and bottom of the cell.
- Electrodes 152 covered with a layer of gold 152 are placed between the mylar sheets 140 spaced apart therefrom by mylar spacers 144.
- the electrodes 152 are supplied with current by wires 156 affixed to electrodes 152, preferably by silver epoxy 154.
- Flow cell 150 is formed within the assembled components which are preferably bonded together by adhesive between each mylar layer.
- the gap between the electrodes is preferably about 1 mm, and the thickness of the cell is preferably about 200 ⁇ m.
- Solid pieces of metal, specifically palladium, have also been used in lieu of the "gilded laminate" design depicted in this figure.
- FIG. 5 shows an electrochemical flow cell of this invention integrated into a particle separation and concentration system.
- An air sampler 210 containing large and small particles 215, is placed in fluid communication with a sedimentation device 212 which allows oversize particles 214 to settle out and be stored or exit via oversize particle collection area 217.
- Remaining particles enter sample inlet 226 where flow may be facilitated by sample inlet pump 216.
- the particles enter tunable electrophoretic or isoelectric focusing device 220 having negative electrode 221 and positive electrode 223, where small interferent particles 232 are separated and exit through small waste outlet 230, facilitated by small waste outlet pump 228.
- Inlet 222 for fluid or buffer allows additional fluid to enter electrophoretic or isoelectric focusing device 220.
- the electrodes were assembled in the following sequence (see Figure 5): (1) the center electrode adhesive-carrier-adhesive (AC A) layer was sandwiched between a folded electrode and secured on an assembly jig using electrode registry features in the jig and electrode; (2) the back side of the electrode was secured; (3) the bond was completed over the entire electrode surface; and (4) the assembly was pressed between polished metal platens to crease the electrode edge.
- AC A center electrode adhesive-carrier-adhesive
- sheath flow is used to avoid any direct contact of proteins or other biological materials with the electrodes.
- Three inlets into channels having electrode walls are provided. The two outer streams contact the electrodes and are free from biological materials. The biological materials to be focused are injected to the central stream.
- Particles have characteristic chemical groups on their surfaces. These chemical groups have characteristic pK a s that define the pH at which they convert from protonated to unprotonated forms in water. As a consequence, as the pH of a solution is varied from acidic to basic, the charge on the particle becomes more negative. At pH 7 most biological particles have negative charges that are characteristic for the type of particle. Particle charge depends not only on the pH, but also on the ionic strength of the medium, as well as on the presence of specific counterions in solution. However, for any such particle there is a pH (isoelectric pH) characteristic of the chemistry of that particle at which the particle will have no net charge, the isoelectric point.
- pH isoelectric pH
- a charged amphoteric particle If a charged amphoteric particle is placed in an electric field, the particle will move in response to that field. If the pH of the solution can be made to vary along the direction of the electric field, the velocity of the particles will vary as a function of their surface charge. In such a pH gradient if the low pH is near the positive charged electrode (anode), and if the isoelectric pH for that particle exists between the two electrodes, the amphoteric particles will migrate toward their isoelectric point. The charged particles decelerate as they approach the region of the isoelectric pH, and effectively stop when they reach the isoelectric pH. This process allows separation of different types of particles according to isoelectric pH by application of a small voltage perpendicular to the flow in an H-filter. This process of separation of particles, particularly proteins, by isoelectric focusing has been generally practiced in macroscale devices. In the devices herein isoelectric focusing is demonstrated in microdevices, for example in microfluidic H-filters.
- the small distance between the electrodes i.e., the microchannel width
- This high field causes rapid movement across a large fraction of the channel width.
- the pH gradient across the width of the channel can be established by any of several means. For example, it is possible to bring into the entrance port of the microchannel multiple fluid streams at different pH values, with or without buffering. To the extent that the pH values do not become uniform across the channel before the particle separation is achieved, this approach is acceptable.
- Electrodes in water will cause electrolysis, the breaking of water into the gases H 2 and 0 2 , with accompanying generation of H + at the anode and OH " at the cathode, at relatively low potentials. Formation of bubbles in microchannels would make a device substantially unusable.
- voltages of less than about 5 V, preferably less than about 2.5 V and more preferably less than about 1.2-1.3 V between two gold electrodes in a microchannel that effective changes in pH are observed, but no evolution of bubbles occurs in either static or flowing systems.
- the efficiency of isoelectric focusing is also a function of the diffusion coefficient of the particle being focused. Very small particles with large diffusion coefficients will tend to diffuse away from their focused location in the channel, so that their focused bands will be broader than particles with lower diffusion coefficients. This technique works best for particles large enough to have negligible diffusion coefficients, such as those larger than about 0.1 ⁇ m.
- Electrophoretic separation requires the particles to "hit" one wall or the other at a specified location along the channel. This is a form of a "ballistic separation technique.” If the flow rate changes, the particles will miss their target exit ports, leading to errors in separation or classification. In the case of the isoelectric focusing, the particles move to isoelectric planes within the channel and remain at those planes relative to the electrodes through the channel. Large swings in flow rate will have little effect. If the particles have relatively small diffusion coefficients, they will remain at these locations relative to the field even if the electrodes do not extend the full length of the channel, and the pH gradient subsequently changes.
- the speed of the isoelectric focusing at a given field across channels is inversely proportional to the width of that channel, so operating at small inter-electrode gaps is highly advantageous.
- the isoelectric focusing can be used to provide continuous separation of different types of particles that differ only by their isoelectric point at low sample volumes. It may be applied to such separation tasks as those required in sample preconditioning in the detection of the chemical and biological warfare agents. Isoelectric focusing may be used to position particles on particular flow lines within microfabricated channels independent of separation activities. For example it is possible to use isoelectric focusing to focus a stream of particles to a particular position within a channel such as a V-groove, as described in U.S. Patent 5,726,751.
- isoelectric focusing or electrophoresis may be used to force all particles of a particular size and surface chemistry to a single narrow line in a flow channel. This is analogous to balancing sedimentation and lift forces in a V- groove; however, electrophoretic or isoelectric focusing does not require orientation relative to gravity. Thus this invention is useful in flow cytometry and similar particle counting and characterization applications.
- the devices of this invention are microfabricated devices for detection and separation of bacterial cells based on electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing.
- the presence of particles can be detected by light scattering near any outlet.
- Specific strains of bacteria can be rapidly detected within complex samples such as blood (bacterial screening) or the output fluid from an air sampler (environmental monitoring or bacterial warfare agent detection).
- the devices and methods of this invention may be used to separate suspended particles of different isoelectric point and to detect and/or count those particles of interest.
- a pH gradient is set up in the channel as described herein.
- a mixture of particles enters the device along a single flow path and selected particles are accelerated toward the position in the flow channel at which the pH is equal to their pi.
- Electrolytes known to the art may be present in the fluids. Chloride ions cause a competitive reaction to the anodic electrolysis of water, being oxidized to chlorine at a potential close to the potential of water electrolysis. Chloride ions should therefore not be present in the fluids, especially for use in embodiments utilizing electrolysis of water to create a pH gradient. Use of a non-reactive electrolyte such as sodium sulfate is preferred.
- This invention provides a device for detecting charged particles in a fluid comprising: a microchannel comprising an inlet for introducing said fluid into said microchannel; a pair of electrodes, preferably formed directly on the walls of the microchannel, for applying a voltage to produce an electrical field across said microchannel orthogonal to the length of said microchannel; and, preferably, means for detecting the position of said charged particles within said microchannel after application of said voltage.
- a pH gradient may be formed across the channel as described hereinafter, and the charged particle detected at a position corresponding to its isoelectric focusing point.
- the applied voltage should be sufficient to move the particles into position to be detected, but not so much as to generate bubbles at the electrode.
- the voltage may be selected to properly position the particles for detection.
- the voltage applied is between about 0.1 V and about 5V. More preferably, the voltage is about 2.5 V.
- the device may also include means known to the art for reversing the polarity of the electric field, as in some instances tighter focusing is achieved by reversing the field, e.g. from +2.5V to -2.5 V.
- the devices of this invention may also include a plurality of pairs of electrodes, each pair of electrodes having a different voltage applied, or different polarity from the pair immediately upstream therefrom.
- the device is configured to form a sheath around the particle-containing fluid to prevent the particle-containing fluid from directly contacting the electrodes.
- a sheath may be formed by inlets positioned to provide sheath fluid on either side of the particle-containing fluid or to provide a sheath completely surrounding the particle-containing fluid.
- MicroChannel configurations providing sheath flow are described, e.g. in U.S. Patent 6,067,157 issued May 23, 2000 and PCT Publication WO 99/60397 published 25 November, 1999, both of which are inco ⁇ orated by reference herein to the extent not inconsistent herewith.
- Devices of this invention may be used to detect particles having differing electrophoretic mobilities or isoelectric points.
- a plurality of particles having differing electrophoretic mobilities or isoelectric points may be present in the fluid, and after application of the voltage, will migrate to different positions in the channel.
- Detection means preferably optical detection means, can be positioned to detect their presence and concentration, and to calculate initial concentration of such particles in the fluid, as is known to the art.
- This invention also provides methods for detecting charged particles in a fluid comprising: introducing a fluid containing charged particles into a microchannel through an inlet; applying a voltage to produce an electrical field across said microchannel orthogonal to the length of said microchannel to cause said charged particles to migrate to a position in said microchannel; and detecting the position of said charged particles within said microchannel after application of said voltage.
- the polarity of the voltage may be reversed one or more times, or a series of pairs of electrodes may be spaced along the channel and different voltages or polarities applied to each pair.
- This invention also provides devices for concentrating selected particles from a fluid comprising: means for sedimenting particles larger than said selected particles; electrophoretic or isoelectric focusing means, in fluid communication with said means for sedimenting, for separating said selected particles from interferent particles selected from the group consisting of particles larger than, smaller than, and both larger and smaller than, said selected particles; and means for analyzing said separated selected particles in fluid communication with said electrophoretic or isoelectric focusing means.
- This invention also provides devices for separation of particles of a first selected electrophoretic mobility from a fluid comprising particles of at least one other selected electrophoretic mobility, comprising: a microchannel comprising an inlet for introducing said fluid into said microchannel; a pair of electrodes for applying a selected voltage to produce an electrical field across said microchannel orthogonal to the length of said microchannel; a first outlet in said microchannel placed to receive a first outlet portion of said fluid containing an enhanced concentration of said particles of said first selected electrophoretic mobility after application of said electrical field, whereby at least said particles of said first selected electrophoretic mobility are caused to migrate toward one of said electrodes; and at least a second outlet in said microchannel placed to receive a second outlet portion of fluid containing an enhanced concentration of particles of a second selected electrophoretic mobility.
- the electrophoretic mobility of particles may be adjusted by complexing them with electrophoretic tags as described below.
- This invention also provides devices for separation of particles of a selected isoelectric point from a fluid stream comprising particles of other isoelectric points, comprising: a microchannel containing said fluid stream and comprising an inlet for introducing said fluid stream into said microchannel; electrodes for applying an electrical field across said microchannel orthogonal to the length of said microchannel sufficient to produce a pH gradient across said fluid stream and concentrate at least a portion of said particles of a selected isoelectric point into a band within said stream; and an outlet in said microchannel placed to receive an outlet fluid stream containing at least a portion of said band after application of said electrical field and, preferably, also a second outlet to receive the remainder of said fluid.
- This invention also provides methods for using the above devices for separating particles of a first selected electrophoretic mobility from a fluid comprising particles of at least one other selected electrophoretic mobility, comprising: flowing said fluid into a microchannel; applying an electrical field pe ⁇ endicular to the length of said microchannel across said microchannel, whereby at least said particles of said first selected electrophoretic mobility are caused to migrate toward one electrode wall of said microchannel; flowing a first outlet portion of said fluid containing an enhanced concentration of said particles of said first selected electrophoretic mobility from said microchannel through a first outlet placed to receive said first outlet portion; and flowing a second outlet portion of said fluid containing an enhanced concentration of particles of a selected second electrophoretic mobility from said microchannel through a second outlet placed to receive said second outlet portion.
- the methods of this invention may be performed in batch or continuous mode; that is, under either static or flowing conditions.
- the second fluid may contain indicator particles or other particles such as antibodies specific to the selected particles, with which the selected particles can react.
- the second fluid is a dilution stream, e.g. comprised of water, buffer, or other typical solvent or carrier, the result of the mixing is dilution of the particle-containing fluid.
- This invention also provides electrophoretic or isoelectric separation methods utilizing electrophoretic tags.
- These methods for separating selected particles from a fluid comprising said particles comprise: flowing said fluid into a microchannel having at least two electrode walls; mixing with said fluid electrophoretic mobility-adjusting particles capable of binding to said selected particles to form complex particles having a selected electrophoretic mobility; applying an electrical field pe ⁇ endicular to the length of said microchannel across said microchannel sufficient to cause said complex particles to migrate toward an electrode wall of said microchannel; and removing a fluid portion containing an enhanced concentration of said complex particles from said microchannel through an outlet placed to receive said fluid portion and preferably a second outlet to receive the remainder of the fluid.
- a dilution stream may be flowed into an inlet in the microchannel such that the complex particles move into the dilution stream, and a diluted stream of complex particles is flowed out of the microchannel through an appropriately placed outlet.
- a stream containing additional particles, including indicator particles may be flowed into the microchannel and the complex particles moved into this stream to cause the particles to mix and react.
- lysing or penetrating cell walls or membranes e.g. use of a French pressure cell, sonication, detergents, lysozymes, freeze-thaw, pH change, and electroporation.
- Mechanical means may also be used such as needles fabricated in the microchannel walls.
- the organisms are damaged within the microchannel; however, the integrity of the cell or organism can be breached to release its contents prior to flowing the organism into the microchannel if desired.
- inlets providing pH change agents, detergents, or other damaging agents may be used to flow such agents into the microchannel for reacting with the organisms as described above.
- electrophoretic mobility-adjusting agents such as electrophoretic tags may be used to alter the electrophoretic mobility of particles released from the organisms.
- microfluidics all relate to channels, conduits and devices in which fluid flow remains almost exclusively in the laminar regime and viscous forces predominate over inertial forces.
- Conduits and channels in "microfabricated” devices have at least one dimension that is less than 1 mm (typically width and/or depth of the channel). At these low Reynolds Number conditions, convective mass transport is mediated by diffusion and by movement in applied fields (e.g., electric, magnetic or gravitational).
- particles refers to any particulate material including small and large molecules, synthetic and natural particles, complex particles such as proteins, carbohydrates, polystyrene latex microspheres, silica particles, viruses, cells, pollen grains, bacteria, viruses and interferents such as dust, and includes suspended and dissolved particles, ions and atoms, excluding atoms and molecules of the carrier fluid.
- Bacteria, viruses, proteins, and other biological particles are prefe ⁇ ed particles of this invention.
- fluid refers to gases or liquids.
- An "enhanced concentration" of particles in a given an outlet portion of the fluid stream means a greater concentration of particles in the outlet portion of the stream than in the main body of the fluid stream.
- the invention relates to full separation as well as partial separation of particles based on their electrophoretic mobilities or isoelectric points.
- An outlet portion of the fluid stream is the portion of the fluid stream flowing through a selectively positioned outlet.
- the outlet portion of the fluid stream contains at least about 50% or more of the particles for which separation from the fluid stream is desired; more preferably it contains substantially all of said particles.
- the selected voltage must be one which causes separation between desired and undesired particles based on their electrophoretic mobility without causing bubble generation. Effective voltages less than or equal to about five volts are prefe ⁇ ed, e.g., about 0.1 to about 0.5 V.
- the voltages should be high enough to cause selected particles to concentrate at an electrode wall within the microchannel. If the system is designed to separate several types of particles with differing electrophoretic mobilities, the voltage should be sufficient to cause all the particles to concentrate at an electrode wall within in the microchannel. Outlets are placed downstream from or at the concentration points for each type of particle. Voltage may be optimized to provide a desired sha ⁇ ness of separation without causing thermal diffusion of desired particles.
- the electrodes may be made of any conductive material. Prefe ⁇ ed materials are gold, palladium and platinum.
- Switching polarities within the microchannel one or more times is an aid to achieving sha ⁇ er isoelectric focusing.
- the polarity switching can be done by changing the polarity of pairs of electrodes, or when one or more additional sets of electrodes are placed within the microchannel, adjacent sets can have opposite polarities.
- the electrical field can be adjusted down the length of the microchannel by applying different voltages to different sets of electrodes.
- the devices of this invention can be fabricated from any moldable, machinable or etchable material such as glass, plastic, or silicon wafers.
- Substrate materials which are optically transparent for a given wavelength range allow for optical detection in that wavelength range, e.g., absorbance or fluorescence measurements, by transmission.
- substrate materials which are reflective allow for optical detection by reflection.
- Substrate materials do not have to allow for optical detection because other art-known methods of detection are suitable as well.
- Non-optical detection methods include electrochemical detection and conductivity detection.
- Each layer of a laminate assembly can be formed of a different material.
- the layers are preferably fabricated from substantially rigid materials.
- a substantially rigid material is inelastic, preferably having a modulus of elasticity less than 1 ,000,000 psi, and more preferably less than 600,000 psi.
- Substantially rigid materials can still exhibit dramatic flexibility when produced in thin films.
- substantially rigid plastics include cellulose acetate, polycarbonate, methylmethacrylate and polyester.
- Metals and metal alloys are also substantially rigid. Examples include steels, aluminum, copper, etc. Glasses, silicon and ceramics are also substantially rigid.
- material may be removed to define the desired structure.
- the sheets can be machined using a laser to ablate the material from the channels.
- the material can be removed by traditional die cutting methods. For some materials chemical etching can be used.
- the negative of the structure desired can be manufactured as a mold and the structure can be produced by injection molding, vacuum thermoforming, pressure-assisted thermofo ⁇ ning or coining techniques.
- Prefe ⁇ ed embodiments are fabricated from Mylar as described herein. In prefe ⁇ ed embodiments the electrodes are coated on the walls of the microchannel.
- the devices may include detection means known to the art for detecting particles in the microchannel or particles which have exited or are exiting from the microchannel.
- detection means determination that a particular substance is present. Typically, the concentration of a particular substance is also determined.
- the methods and apparatuses of this invention can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a fluid including the initial concentration of the substance in the input fluid.
- the devices of this invention may comprise external detecting means or internal detecting means.
- Detection and analysis is done by any means known to the art, including optical means, such as optical spectroscopy, and other means such as abso ⁇ tion spectroscopy or fluorescence, by chemical indicators which change color or other properties when exposed to the analyte, by immunological means, electrical means, e.g. electrodes inserted into the device, electrochemical means, radioactive means, or virtually any microanalytical technique known to the art including magnetic resonance techniques, or other means known to the art to detect the presence of analyte particles such as ions, molecules, polymers, viruses, DNA sequences, antigens, microorganisms or other factors.
- optical means such as optical spectroscopy, and other means such as abso ⁇ tion spectroscopy or fluorescence
- chemical indicators which change color or other properties when exposed to the analyte
- immunological means e.g. electrodes inserted into the device
- electrochemical means e.g. electrodes inserted into the device
- radioactive means e.g. electro
- Electrophoretic mobility-adjusting particles such as electrophoretic tags may be used to create a charge on an uncharged molecule to provide for electrophoretic mobility or isoelectric focusing.
- Figure 6 depicts such an electrophoretic tag consisting of an antibody specific for the desired particle attached to a highly charged polymer. This molecular complex promotes binding of a highly charged polymer to an epitope on a target antigen of any size. Tagging of the antigen makes the antigen more mobile in an electric field and shifts its isoelectric point.
- An example of a tag consists of an IgG or fragment 1 thereof that is biofinylated, a streptavidin molecule 4, and one to three charged polymer chains 2 (like DNA as shown) that are biofinylated at one end and highly fluorescently labeled 3 at the other.
- the electrophoretic mobility-adjusting particles may be mixed with the fluid to be tested, e.g. before flowing them into the microchannel, or flowing them into a second inlet to the microchannel and mixing by providing an electric field across the channel to move these electrophoretic tags into the fluid stream containing the selected particles to which they are to bind.
- Figure 7B shows the pattern of the thin film electrodes that were deposited on a Pyrex cover slip using photolithography, metal evaporation and lift-off.
- a 4-minute etch of the glass in buffered oxide etch was included before metal deposition so that the electrodes would be countersunk thereby reducing the non-uniformity of the Pyrex surface.
- the metal electrodes consisted of 10 nm of chromium as an adhesion promoter and 100 nm of gold deposited in the same vacuum chamber using metal evaporation.
- the gap between the electrodes was 600 ⁇ m and the electrodes were 1 cm long.
- a cover slip was placed on an individual device such that the electrodes extended beyond the boundary of the silicon and the 600 ⁇ m gap was approximately at the center of the 800 ⁇ m channel and very close to the outlet. This alignment was done visually but was repeatable to within +/- 50 ⁇ m.
- Conducting epoxy was used to attach wires to the electrodes and glass tubes were epoxied to the through-holes in the silicon at the three inlets and the outlet of the device.
- thin film metal was deposited on an oxidized silicon wafer.
- the pads were 1.5 cm by 1 cm and there was a gap of 1 mm between them.
- a gasket was used to confine a drop of potassium phosphate buffer on the gap but still allow access to the pads.
- At 1 volt there did not appear to be any bubbles generated and the adhesion of the film was not affected even after the voltage was applied for 5 minutes. Above 1.5 volts bubbles were clearly visible, and at 3 volts the film lost adhesion and could be wiped off the substrate. All the oxide was etched from silicon wafers and plain Pyrex cover slips bonded to the wafer which were diced to separate individual devices.
- the two side inlets delivered pure buffer, and the center inlet delivered a mixture of 1 ⁇ m and 6 ⁇ m fluorescent beads suspended in the sodium barbital buffer.
- the fluid levels at the inlet tubes were approximately 2.5 cm and the pressure differential with the outlet tube pumped the fluid through the device.
- the width of the sample stream was approximately 75 ⁇ m but varied somewhat depending on the relative height of the fluid levels. With 3 volts applied, the larger beads appeared to be deflected more than the smaller beads. However, there was a difference in the behavior of the beads depending on where they were located in the flow stream. Slower moving beads that had settled on the Pyrex did not appear to be deflected when voltage was applied.
- An alternative implementation involves placing the electrodes on the side of Si microfabricated channels. This is accomplished by shadowing the device at an angle to coat only the sides of V-grooves with the electrode material.
- Fig. IB The electrochemical flow cell channel geometry, critical electrode parameters, and the optical region of imaging (ROI) are illustrated in Fig. IB.
- the ROI is located in the middle of the channel to minimize electrode edge effects.
- An H-filter configuration flow cell was used with a main flow cell cross section of 0.41 mm between the two Mylar observation walls (z-coordinate) and 2.54 mm between the two electrodes (y-coordinate).
- the channel was 40 mm long (x-coordinate).
- the two electrodes were 0.2 mm thick (along z-coordinate) and centered between the top and bottom observation windows. In the x-coordinate the electrodes were 38.5 mm in length and centered between the inlet and outlet ports in the x-coordinate.
- the cathode was located at the y- coordinate origin. Electrical connections to the anode and cathode were achieved using silver epoxy or direct mechanical contact maintained by clamping. Visualization of the microfluidic channels was performed using an inverted optical microscope (IM 35, Zeiss, Germany). A low power objective (2.5/0.008) was used for all experiments. Images of the channel were taken using a 3-chip cooled CCD camera (ChromoCam 300, Oncor, Gaithersburg, MD) in combination with a video data acquisition card (CG-7 RGB frame grabber, Scion, Frederick, MD) and accompanying PC software (Scion Image). A standard fluorescein filter set (ex. 450-490 nm, dichroic at 510 nm, em. 520 nm long pass) was used for fluorescence measurements.
- MES 2-(4- mo ⁇ holino)-ethane sulfonic acid
- the position of the color front was determined from a plot of green pixel intensity vs. relative y-position in the channel and was used to define the location of a specific pH.
- the color profile was measured along the field direction, and the "front" was considered to be a mid-point between a pH extreme (either acid or base) and the starting pH.
- phenol red at an initial pH of 7.6 (36% deprotonated)
- these midpoints co ⁇ espond to 18% and 68% deprotonated.
- bromocresol pu ⁇ le at the same initial pH ( 100% deprotonated)
- the camera used in these experiments was determined experimentally to exhibit a log-linear response with respect to optical density (OD). That is, the log of the pixel value varies linearly with OD.
- OD optical density
- the log of pixel value also is linear with a degree of protonation.
- Bromocresol pu ⁇ le should be 99% deprotonated at pH 7.64, and in its basic pu ⁇ le form. When a potential of 2.0 V was applied, a change from pu ⁇ le to yellow was observed at the anode because of H + production. The acid front moved towards the cathode over time until it reached a steady-state position.
- the channel was 0.381 mm high, 1.27 mm wide (co ⁇ esponds to the distance between the electrodes), and 40 mm long.
- the electrodes were made of gold-plated copper. This gold plating appeared to be successful since bubble formation, indicative of water hydrolysis, was not observed to occur until approximately 2 V was applied, which is close to the expected value for gold and higher than the observed value for copper (1-1.2 V).
- the top stream contained Fluoresbrite Polystyrene latex beads in citrate buffer with a theoretical ionic strength of either 9 mM or 0.09 mM. Polystyrene latex has a native negative charge.
- the bottom stream was matching buffer alone. Volumetric flow rate was 0.10 ⁇ L/s for each stream. The two streams were maintained at the same pumping rates using the syringe pumps. The velocity in the channel (assuming plug flow) was 0.43 mm/s, so the minimum retention time was 93 seconds.
- bovine hemoglobin and a fluorescently labeled BSA were focused into single tight bands in a few minutes.
- the position of the focused protein bands was affected by the initial solution pH.
- fluorescent bovine serum albumin BSA
- BSA fluorescent bovine serum albumin
- Bodipy FL conjugate Molecular Probes, Inc., Eugene, OR
- the isoelectric points (pi) of proteins were determined experimentally by polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing, using the procedure specified by BioRad Laboratories, Inc. (Hercules, CA).
- a mini IEF cell Model 111 purchased from BioRad equipped by two graphite electrodes was employed for this pu ⁇ ose. Focusing was carried out under constant voltage conditions (Power Pac 1000, BioRad).
- the stability of the fluorescence of the BSA conjugate was measured over a broad range of pH values with an LS-50B Perkin Elmer luminescence spectrometer (Norwalk, CT).
- Bovine hemoglobin was selected as a test case because of its strong absorbance at 550 nm (facilitating observation without need for additional dyes).
- the pi of Hb is 7.1, as verified by polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing run at the same concentration as was used for IEF in the microchannel.
- IEF of Hb in the microchannel was performed in 0.1 mM histidine buffer with an initial pH of 7.1 (as was mentioned above the best results of IEF of proteins were obtained for the initial pH of the buffer solution close to the pi value of the protein).
- a voltage of 2.5 V (resulting in a cu ⁇ ent of 5 ⁇ A) was applied for 6 minutes. Two zones of higher optical density close to the electrodes were formed within 15 s.
- BSA bovine serum albumin
- Bodipy FL fluorescent dye
- a possible disadvantage of using such covalently modified proteins is the creation of a heterogeneous population because of variation in degree of conjugation with multiple labels.
- the pi of each type of conjugate could be different from the pi of the native protein because of the modification of the surface amines to other charged or neutral species. It has been shown that the conjugation reaction of BSA with other dyes, such as fluorescein isothiocyanate or rhodamine -B- isothiocyanate, does not necessarily significantly affect the pi of BSA (4.6). This conclusion was confirmed by our measurements of pi of the BSA conjugate via polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing; the pi was found to be 4.6 ⁇ 0.1.
- the fluorescence of the BSA-Bodipy FL conjugate is reported to be insensitive to pH between 4 and 8. Since these pH values could be exceeded in the microchannels, particularly near the electrodes, the stability of the fluorescence signal of the BSA conjugate was studied, especially at higher pH values found during the IEF. Solutions of 1.52 ⁇ M BSA were prepared for different pH from 2.5 to 10.0. A fluorescence spectrum from 500 -550 nm for an excitation wavelength of 495.0 ⁇ 2.5 nm was recorded for each of the solutions immediately after its preparation and then after each 30 minutes for 4.5 hours. The fluorescence did not significantly change during these measurements for any pH values, confirming that the changes of fluorescence observed in the microchannels were not due to quenching by extremely low or high pH values.
- Time needed for IEF of BSA conjugate also varied with the initial pH.
- the IEF of BSA conjugate was faster for lower pH values. While IEF of BSA into one tight stream took place within 3 minutes for an initial pH of 3.54, 10 minutes was not long enough to focus the BSA conjugate into one tight band for an initial pH of 6.22.
- One explanation of this difference in time may be that the BSA conjugate had to travel farther at the higher initial pH values.
- the pH co ⁇ esponding to the BSA conjugate pi shifted away from the cathode at higher initial pH values, which means shifting away from the initial position of BSA conjugate.
- Eq. 1 1-D electrophoresis-diffusion Model of pH gradient formation in microfluidic electrochemical flow cell.
- the mathematical formulation of the processes occurring in the microfluidic electrochemical flow cell is based on the equation of continuity (Eq. 1), in which c(x,y,z,t) is the concentration of a given species, v(x,y,z,t) is the velocity, and J(x,y,z) is the mass flux.
- the chemical reaction term is zero in this model.
- the least complicated, and least accurate, method is to assume that the flow is uniform along the y-dimension (height of the electrodes) and parabolic along the x-dimension.
- the aspect ratio of the device is 3: 1 , with the electrode separation as the wider dimension, it is grossly inaccurate to assume a blunt profile along the y-dimension.
- the y-dimension should demonstrate a more exaggerated parabolic profile than the x-dimension (see Figure 10).
- To improve the accuracy of the calculated velocities one must solve for the full 2-D flow profile (see Figure 10).
- Equation 4a Conservation of momentum
- the gradient of the velocity may be expressed using finite difference methods as follows:
- Equation 5 Finite difference implementation of Eq. 4b
- Ay 2 — Ax 2 (v ! +l + v ; _, ) + Ay 2 (v l+l + v,_ - ( ⁇ x 2 + ⁇ /)(2v
- Eq. 6 The left-hand side of Eq. 6 is a constant for all grid points, and may therefore be non- dimensionalized.
- the equation above is valid for all the internal, non-boundary grid points. At the boundaries, a no-slip condition is applied (i.e., the velocity at the walls for all boundary points is zero).
- Matlab The Mathworks, Inc.
- the conductivity was calculated using data taken from a resistivity meter with a cell constant of 0.274 cm "1 . This difference in applied versus calculated voltage suggests that there is a significant voltage drop immediately at the electrode surfaces.
- the model assumes a constant cu ⁇ ent density and calculates a local field at each node, so this unknown voltage drop does not prevent the model from accurately modeling the bulk of the channel.
- the device geometry is such that the electrode only covers 50% of the channel walls.
- the channel walls are assumed to be homogenous and the cu ⁇ ent density is calculated using the entire area of the channel wall (0.38 A/m 2 for the experiments discussed below). This simplification is appropriate because the chemical species in the channel diffuse rapidly relative to the convective transport down the channel, thus allowing chemical species to equilibrate along the y-axis.
- Image capture To track the formation and position of pH gradients, color images of the channel were taken using transmitted incandescent light as the illumination source.
- the channel was imaged with a color 3-chip CCD camera (Oncor, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD) mounted to a microscope (Carl Zeiss, Inc., Thorn wood, NY) and images were captured using a frame grabber (Scion CG-7, manufactured by Scion Co., Frederick, MD).
- the microscope stage was manually advanced past the microscope objective in either 1 mm or 2 mm increments, as measured with the micrometer inco ⁇ orated into the microscope stage.
- Image Segmentation A typical image consisted of a bright wide vertical stripe bracketed on either side by a thin black vertical stripe (the walls formed by the opaque electrodes).
- the first step in image processing was to isolate the colored section from the wall.
- the red channel in the RGB image was saturated (i.e., white, intensity of 255 on a 0-255 scale) at all pH values and significantly darker at the walls, which proved useful for image segmentation.
- the channel walls were located by the window of pixels that exhibited a steep slope in red pixel intensity, indicative of a sudden change in pixel intensity, to either side of the center of the channel.
- Illumination variation co ⁇ ection Two kinds of illumination variation were observed in the experimental data: variation in illumination between images taken at different points in the channel and variation in illumination across the channel for a given image (intra-image).
- the image-to-image illumination variation was an artifact of the experimental apparatus, which reduced the intensity of the illumination proximal to the inlet, causing those images taken near the inlet of the device to appear darker than images taken in the center of the channel.
- images were taken of the channel filled with pH indicator dye, under no- voltage and no-flow conditions, and pixel intensity profiles were taken as described above.
- the deviation from the initial intensity profile, at z 0, was calculated for each subsequent profile by taking the ratio of the initial image to that of the profile of interest, on a pixel-by-pixel basis, generating a matrix of normalizing values, M n (number of images, number of pixels).
- the intra-image variation may have been caused by slight height differences in the Mylar viewing window.
- a second set of normalization values was generated by dividing the initial intensity profile of the background image series by its maximum pixel value (occurring approximately at the center of the channel), again on a pixel-by-pixel basis, generating a vector of normalizing values, V n (number of pixels).
- the 1-D model predictions were qualitatively similar to the experimental results.
- the predicted initial concentration of unprotonated dye was similar to the log of the normalized pixel intensity at the inlet of the channel. This agreement supports the validity of the analytical method used to compare the model to experimental data.
Abstract
Description
Claims
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JP2001501373A JP2003501639A (en) | 1999-06-03 | 2000-05-26 | Microfluidic devices for transverse and isoelectric focusing |
EP00964883A EP1190241A4 (en) | 1999-06-03 | 2000-05-26 | Microfluidic devices for transverse electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing |
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US (2) | US20040256230A1 (en) |
EP (1) | EP1190241A4 (en) |
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-
2000
- 2000-05-26 JP JP2001501373A patent/JP2003501639A/en not_active Withdrawn
- 2000-05-26 WO PCT/US2000/014697 patent/WO2000074850A2/en not_active Application Discontinuation
- 2000-05-26 EP EP00964883A patent/EP1190241A4/en not_active Withdrawn
-
2004
- 2004-02-27 US US10/788,884 patent/US20040256230A1/en not_active Abandoned
-
2007
- 2007-11-13 US US11/939,292 patent/US20120138469A1/en not_active Abandoned
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US20120138469A1 (en) | 2012-06-07 |
EP1190241A2 (en) | 2002-03-27 |
EP1190241A4 (en) | 2004-03-31 |
US20040256230A1 (en) | 2004-12-23 |
WO2000074850A3 (en) | 2001-06-28 |
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JP2003501639A (en) | 2003-01-14 |
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