USRE41578E1 - Micro electrochemical energy storage cells - Google Patents

Micro electrochemical energy storage cells Download PDF

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USRE41578E1
USRE41578E1 US11/866,722 US86672207A USRE41578E US RE41578 E1 USRE41578 E1 US RE41578E1 US 86672207 A US86672207 A US 86672207A US RE41578 E USRE41578 E US RE41578E
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microbattery
thin
meesc
energy storage
electrochemical energy
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Menachem Nathan
Emanuel Peled
Dan Haronian
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Tel Aviv University Future Technology Development LP
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Ramot at Tel Aviv University Ltd
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    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01MPROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052Li-accumulators
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/04Hybrid capacitors
    • H01G11/06Hybrid capacitors with one of the electrodes allowing ions to be reversibly doped thereinto, e.g. lithium ion capacitors [LIC]
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/22Electrodes
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/22Electrodes
    • H01G11/26Electrodes characterised by their structure, e.g. multi-layered, porosity or surface features
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/54Electrolytes
    • H01G11/56Solid electrolytes, e.g. gels; Additives therein
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/66Current collectors
    • H01G11/70Current collectors characterised by their structure
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01GCAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES OR LIGHT-SENSITIVE DEVICES, OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/74Terminals, e.g. extensions of current collectors
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01MPROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/058Construction or manufacture
    • H01M10/0585Construction or manufacture of accumulators having only flat construction elements, i.e. flat positive electrodes, flat negative electrodes and flat separators
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01MPROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M6/00Primary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M6/40Printed batteries, e.g. thin film batteries
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H05ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05KPRINTED CIRCUITS; CASINGS OR CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF ELECTRIC APPARATUS; MANUFACTURE OF ASSEMBLAGES OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
    • H05K1/00Printed circuits
    • H05K1/16Printed circuits incorporating printed electric components, e.g. printed resistor, capacitor, inductor
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01LSEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L2924/00Indexing scheme for arrangements or methods for connecting or disconnecting semiconductor or solid-state bodies as covered by H01L24/00
    • H01L2924/0001Technical content checked by a classifier
    • H01L2924/0002Not covered by any one of groups H01L24/00, H01L24/00 and H01L2224/00
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01MPROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/04Construction or manufacture in general
    • H01M2010/0495Nanobatteries
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H01ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01MPROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M6/00Primary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M6/14Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M6/18Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte with solid electrolyte
    • HELECTRICITY
    • H05ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05KPRINTED CIRCUITS; CASINGS OR CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF ELECTRIC APPARATUS; MANUFACTURE OF ASSEMBLAGES OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
    • H05K2201/00Indexing scheme relating to printed circuits covered by H05K1/00
    • H05K2201/10Details of components or other objects attached to or integrated in a printed circuit board
    • H05K2201/10007Types of components
    • H05K2201/10037Printed or non-printed battery
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02EREDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10Energy storage using batteries
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02EREDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/13Energy storage using capacitors
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02PCLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P70/00Climate change mitigation technologies in the production process for final industrial or consumer products
    • Y02P70/50Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10TTECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
    • Y10T29/00Metal working
    • Y10T29/49Method of mechanical manufacture
    • Y10T29/49002Electrical device making
    • Y10T29/49108Electric battery cell making

Definitions

  • This invention relates to thin film micro-electrochemical energy storage cells (MEESC), such as microbatteries and double-layer capacitors (DLC).
  • MEESC micro-electrochemical energy storage cells
  • DLC double-layer capacitors
  • ICs integrated circuits
  • chips integrated circuits
  • electrical energy is supplied from, for example, a microbattery or a double-layer capacitor (DLC) and is changed into other forms of energy by appliances in the circuit, which have resistance.
  • DLC double-layer capacitor
  • thin-film microbatteries which have several advantages over conventional batteries, since battery cell components can be prepared as thin (1-20 ⁇ m) sheets built up as layers.
  • battery cell components can be prepared as thin (1-20 ⁇ m) sheets built up as layers.
  • thin layers of the cathode, electrolyte and anode are deposited using direct-current and radiofrequency magnetron sputtering or thermal evaporation.
  • the area and thickness of the sheets determine battery capacity and there is a need to increase the total electrode area in a given volume.
  • Thin films result in higher current densities and cell efficiencies because the transport of ions is easier and faster through thin-film layers than through thick layers.
  • U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,338,625 and 5,567,210 describe thin-film lithium cells, especially thin-film microbatteries having application as backup or primary integrated power sources for electronic devices and method for making such.
  • the batteries described in these references are assembled from solid state materials, and can be fabricated directly onto a semiconductor chip, the chip package or the chip carrier. These batteries have low energy and power. They have an open circuit voltage at full charge of 3.7-4.5 V and can deliver currents of up to 100 ⁇ A/cm 2 . The capacity of a 1 square cm microbattery is about 130 ⁇ A/hr. These low values make these batteries useful only for very low power requirements in some microelectronic circuits.
  • a double-layer capacitor as opposed to a classic capacitor, is made of an ion conductive layer between two electrodes.
  • DLC double-layer capacitor
  • etching technologies such as reactive-ion etching (RIE), electron-cyclotron-resonance (ECR) etching and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching have been developed to etch semiconductor devices having extremely small features sizes.
  • RIE reactive-ion etching
  • ECR electron-cyclotron-resonance
  • ICP inductively coupled plasma
  • the present invention is based on a novel approach, according to which a thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) such as a DLC or a microbattery is created on a macroporous substrate, thus presenting increased capacity and performance.
  • MEESC micro-electrochemical energy storage cell
  • the cavities within a substrate are formed by deep wet or dry etching of the substrate.
  • holes may be formed by an Inductive Coupling Plasma (ICP) etching using the Bosch process described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,501,893.
  • ICP Inductive Coupling Plasma
  • MEESC micro-electrochemical energy storage cell
  • a more particular object of the invention is to provide a DLC or a microbattery with up to two orders of magnitude increase in capacity.
  • a thin-film MEESC is formed on a substrate having etched structures.
  • the use of such a substrate increases the available area for thin film deposition, thus leading to an increase in volume, i.e. capacity of the cell.
  • the present invention provides a thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) comprising two thin layer electrodes and intermediate to these electrodes, a thin layer of a solid electrolyte consisting of an ionically conducting or electronically non-conducting material such as glass, polymer electrolyte or polycrystalline material, and optionally a fourth thin current collector layer, all these layers being deposited in sequence on a surface of a substrate, wherein the MEESC is characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of cavities with high aspect ratio; said electrodes, solid electrolyte and current collector layers being deposited also throughout the inner surface of said cavities and on both surfaces.
  • MEESC micro-electrochemical energy storage cell
  • alkali metal M
  • alkali metal alloy for example alkali metal alloy based on Zn, Al, Mg, or Sn or in the charged state consisting of lithiated carbon or graphite
  • a thin layer cathode consisting of LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiMn 2 O 4 , TiS 2 , V 2 O 5 , V 3 O 8 or lithiated forms of the vanadium oxides,
  • a solid electrolyte intermediate to the anode and cathode layers which consists of a thin layer of an ionically conducting or electronically non-conducting material such as glass, polymer electrolyte or polycrystalline material, and
  • a current collector layer optionally, a current collector layer; the anode or cathode layer being deposited on a surface of a substrate, the microbattery being characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of cavities with high aspect ratio; said anode, cathode and solid electrolyte layers being deposited also throughout the inner surface of said holes.
  • the microbattery is a lithium ion type
  • such a battery is fabricated in the discharge state where the cathode is fully lithiated and the alloy, the carbon or the graphite anode is not charged with lithium.
  • the MEESC of the present invention is a double-layer capacitor (DLC), which comprises two electrodes made of high surface area carbon powder and intermediate to these electrodes a solid electrolyte layer, preferably a polymer electrolyte.
  • DLC double-layer capacitor
  • FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a thin-film microbattery coating a silicon wafer with through-holes.
  • FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a test cell.
  • Thin-film rechargeable power sources can be applied for computer memory back-up and many other uses, such as autonomous micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS).
  • MEMS micro electro-mechanical systems
  • Lithium batteries have been brought recently to an extreme stage of miniaturization. Sequential gas phase deposition techniques of anode, electrolyte and cathode layers make it possible to incorporate such lithium batteries on a silicon substrate. In a chemical vapor deposition process gases and/or vapors react to form a solid compound. This reaction usually takes place after adsorption and partial decomposition of the precursors on the substrate surface, though reaction in the gas phase is possible.
  • the thin-film MEESC of the present invention consists of a sandwich of multiple layers, coating the inside of a through-cavity of arbitrary shape, formed in a substrate, for example by means of Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP) etching when the substrate is made of silicon.
  • ICP Inductive Coupled Plasma
  • the substrate material is made of a single crystal or amorphous material and is selected from glass, alumina, semiconductor materials for use in microelectronics, or ceramic materials.
  • the substrate material is preferably silicon.
  • the through-cavities etched have very high aspect ratio and smooth surfaces, both features being essential for achieving uniform coating and an increase in the area available for thin-film deposition.
  • the thin-film layers of the electrodes and electrolyte are deposited by either Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), casting or plating techniques.
  • CVD Chemical Vapor Deposition
  • gases providing the required materials will pass the cavity, undergo a chemical reaction induced by heat, plasma or a combination of the two, and deposit the material uniformly on the inside wall and between the cavities.
  • the polymer electrolyte is designed so as to contain at least one material that can be reduced to form an insoluble solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the anode surface.
  • SEI solid electrolyte interphase
  • Aprotic solvents such as ethylene carbonate (EC), diethylcarbonate (DEC), dimethylcarbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), butyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinyl carbonate, dialkylsulfites and any mixtures of these, and metal salts such as LiPF 6 , LiBF 4 , LiAsF 6 , LiCF 3 , and LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 are considered to be good SEI precursors, as well as other salts such as LiI and LiBr.
  • the polymer electrolyte further contains a polymer, preferably polyethylene oxide, adapted to form a complex with the metal salt and optionally a nanosize ceramic powder to form a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE).
  • the negative electrode is not specifically restricted as long as it comprises an electrically conductive film that provides alkali metal in a form effective for the electrode reaction.
  • the preferred microbattery used in the present invention is a lithium ion type battery fabricated in the discharge state wherein the anode is made of Al, Sn, Zn, Mg based alloys, carbon or graphite. Lithium-ion cells made according to the present invention are air stable in the discharged state and are charged only after the assembly of the cell, thus being more favorable in terms of ease of production.
  • the active substance of the positive electrode is not specifically restricted as long as it is of a type in which the metal ions, e.g. lithium ions are intercalated or inserted during discharge and taken out during charge of the battery.
  • Inorganic compounds are typically employed, for example LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiMn 2 O 4 , and lithiated vandium oxides for the lithium ion microbattery, while FeS 2 and TiS 2 can be used for the lithium metal anode microbattery. Fine powders of these compounds are cast together with the polymer electrolyte.
  • a composite polymer electrolyte and/or a cathode contain up to 15% (V/V) of inorganic nanosize powder such as Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , MgO, TiO 2 or mixtures thereof, the cell demonstrates improved charge-discharge performance.
  • DLC liquid crystal display
  • additional salts can be used such as amonium and alkyl amonium salts.
  • the DLC is made in a similar way as the microbattery: the electrodes are made in a same manner as the cathode layer in microbatteries, but the cathode powder is replaced by a high surface area (over 50 m 2 /g) carbon.
  • FIG. 1 shows a possible cylindrical geometry implemented in a substrate, for example silicon, of a microbattery.
  • the anode is made, in the charged state, of an alkali metal (M), alkali metal alloy or lithiated carbon.
  • the preferred alkali metal is lithium and the preferred alloys are Al, Mg, Sn and Zn based alloys.
  • the cathode is made of LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiMn 2 O 4 , TiS 2 , V 2 O 5 , V 3 O 13 or the lithiated form of these vanadium oxides.
  • the layers are deposited by CVD, plating, casting or similar known coating techniques, preferably by CVD.
  • Contacts to the anode and cathode are made on either the same side of the wafer using masking, etching, and contact metal deposition, or using both sides of the wafer.
  • the microbattery of the present invention has an increased area available for thin film deposition by up to 100 fold. Since the capacity of a battery is directly proportional to its volume, for the same thin-film thickness (typically a few microns for each layer of anode, electrode and cathode and up to a total of about 70 ⁇ m), means an increase in volume of up to about two orders of magnitude, i.e. capacity, to about 10,000 microAmp hour per 1 square cm.
  • a microbattery consisting of a carbon anode, composite polymer electrolyte and composite LiCoO 2 cathode was fabricated in the discharged state on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 100 micron in diameter through holes.
  • a thin carbon film was deposited by CVD at 850 Celsius by passing a C 2 H 4 (10%) Ar (90%) gas mixture for four minutes over the wafer.
  • a second layer of a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE) was deposited (inside an Ar filled glove box) over the carbon layer by a short vacuum dipping at 50-65 Celsius in acetonitrile (30 ml) suspension consisting of 0.6 g PEO (5 ⁇ 10 6 MW), 0.05 g EC, 0.1 g LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 (imide) and 0.03 g alumina. After drying, a second layer of CPE was deposited in the same way to get the desired CPE thickness.
  • CPE composite polymer electrolyte
  • a thin cathode layer was deposited (inside the glove box) over the CPE layer by a short vacuum dipping in cyclopentanone (10 ml) suspension consisting of 2 g of ball milled LiCoO 2 , 0.05 g alumina, 0.2 g PVDF copolymer (ELF 2800) and 0.4 g sub-micron graphite powder.
  • cyclopentanone (10 ml) suspension consisting of 2 g of ball milled LiCoO 2 , 0.05 g alumina, 0.2 g PVDF copolymer (ELF 2800) and 0.4 g sub-micron graphite powder.
  • Poly(ethylene oxide)(P(EO)) was purchased from Aldrich, (average molecular weight 5 ⁇ 10 6 ) and was vacuum dried at 45° to 50° C. for about 24 hours.
  • the imide (Aldrich) was vacuum dried at 200° C. for about 4 hours. All subsequent handling of these materials took place under an argon atmosphere in a VAC glove box with an water content ⁇ 10 ppm.
  • a polymer electrolyte slurry was prepared by dispersing known quantities of P(EO), imide, and ethylene carbonate (EC) in analytical grade acetonitrile together with the required amount of an inorganic filler, such as Al 2 O 3 (Buehler), or SiO 2 with an average diameter of about 150 ⁇ .
  • an inorganic filler such as Al 2 O 3 (Buehler), or SiO 2 with an average diameter of about 150 ⁇ .
  • FIG. 2 which comprises a hermetically sealed glass container 5 , provided with an outlet 1 , connected to a vacuum pump; the glass cover 3 of the glass container is equipped with a Viton O-ring 4 .
  • a contact was made to the carbon anode and on the other side a contact was made to the cathode.
  • the test cell illustrated in FIG. 2 is connected by wires 7 to tungsten rods 2 which pass through the cover.
  • the battery 6 was cycled between 2.5 and 4.1 V at 0.01 mA and at 25° C. using a Maccor series 2000 battery test system.
  • the cell delivered above 0.4 mAh per cycle for over 20 cycles.
  • the Faradaic efficiency was close to 100%.
  • a DLC consisting of two carbon electrodes, and composite polymer electrolyte was fabricated on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 100 micron in diameter through holes in a similar way as described in Example 1.
  • a thin high surface area carbon powder 500 m 2 /g (made by 1000 Celsius pyrolysis of cotton) layer was deposited (inside the glove box) on the perforated wafer by a short vacuum dipping in cyclopentanone (10 ml) suspension consisting of 1 g of ball milled carbon, 0.05 g carbon black and 0.1 g PVDF copolymer (ELF 2800).
  • a second layer of a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE) was deposited (inside Ar filled glove box) over the carbon layer by a short vacuum dipping at 50-65 Celsius in an acetonitrile (30 ml) suspension consisting of 0.6 g PEO (5 ⁇ 10 6 MW), 0.05 g EC, 0.1 g LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 (imide) and 0.03 g alumina. After drying, another layer of CPE was deposited in the same way to get the desired CPE thickness. A third high surface area carbon layer was deposited in the same way as the first one.
  • CPE composite polymer electrolyte
  • the DLC was cycled at 0.01 mA between 1.2 and 2.5 V for over 1000 cycles of 10 seconds each.
  • a microbattery consisting of four thin films: a carbon anode, Al doped Li 2 CO 3 solid electrolyte, LiCoO 2 cathode and carbon current collector was fabricated in the discharged state on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 60 micron in diameter through holes.
  • a thin carbon film was CVD deposited at 850 Celsius by passing a C 2 H 4 (10%) Ar (90%) gas mixture for three minutes over the wafer.
  • a second layer of thin Al doped Li 2 CO 3 solid electrolyte was deposited at 475 Celsius on the first one by CVD following the procedure described in P. Fragnaul et al. J. Power Sources 54, 362 1995.
  • a third thin layer of LiCoO 2 cathode was deposited at 500 Celsius on the second one following the procedure described in P. Fragnaul et al. J. Power Sources 54, 362 1995.
  • a fourth thin carbon current collector layer was deposited at 800 Celsius on the third one in the same way as the first one.
  • This cell was cycled (as described in example 1) at 0.01 mA and at room temperature between 2.5 and 4.1 V for more than 10 stable cycles.

Abstract

Thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cells (MEESC) such as microbatteries and double-layer capacitors (DLC) are provided. The MEESC comprises two thin layer electrodes, an intermediate thin layer of a solid electrolyte and optionally, a fourth thin current collector layer; said layers being deposited in sequence on a surface of a substrate. The MEESC is characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of through cavities of arbitrary shape, with high aspect ratio. By using the substrate volume, an increase in the total electrode area per volume is accomplished.

Description

NOTICE OF MULTIPLE REISSUE APPLICATIONS
More than one reissue application has been filed with respect to the present Pat. No. 6,197,450, the first being application Ser. No. 10/382,466, filed Mar. 6, 2003, and the second, which is a continuation of the first, being application Ser. No. 11/866,722, filed Oct. 3, 2007.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to thin film micro-electrochemical energy storage cells (MEESC), such as microbatteries and double-layer capacitors (DLC).
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Advances in electronics have given us pocket calculators, digital watches, heart pacemakers, computers for industry, commerce and scientific research, automatically controlled production processes and a host of other applications.
These have become possible largely because we have learned how to build complete circuits, containing millions of electronic devices, on a tiny wafer of silicon no larger than 25-40 mm square and 0.4-0.5 mm thick. Microelectronics is concerned with these miniaturized integrated circuits (ICs), or “chips” as they are called. In a circuit, electrical energy is supplied from, for example, a microbattery or a double-layer capacitor (DLC) and is changed into other forms of energy by appliances in the circuit, which have resistance.
Recently, with the tendency of miniaturizing of small-sized electronic devices, there have been developed thin-film microbatteries, which have several advantages over conventional batteries, since battery cell components can be prepared as thin (1-20 μm) sheets built up as layers. Usually, such thin layers of the cathode, electrolyte and anode are deposited using direct-current and radiofrequency magnetron sputtering or thermal evaporation.
The area and thickness of the sheets determine battery capacity and there is a need to increase the total electrode area in a given volume. Thin films result in higher current densities and cell efficiencies because the transport of ions is easier and faster through thin-film layers than through thick layers.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,338,625 and 5,567,210 describe thin-film lithium cells, especially thin-film microbatteries having application as backup or primary integrated power sources for electronic devices and method for making such. The batteries described in these references are assembled from solid state materials, and can be fabricated directly onto a semiconductor chip, the chip package or the chip carrier. These batteries have low energy and power. They have an open circuit voltage at full charge of 3.7-4.5 V and can deliver currents of up to 100 μA/cm2. The capacity of a 1 square cm microbattery is about 130 μA/hr. These low values make these batteries useful only for very low power requirements in some microelectronic circuits.
A double-layer capacitor (DLC), as opposed to a classic capacitor, is made of an ion conductive layer between two electrodes. In order to make an electric double-layer capacitor smaller and lighter without any change in its capacitance, it is necessary to increase the energy. This may be accomplished, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,754,393, by increasing the working voltage by use of an electrolyte having a high decomposition voltage.
Advanced etching technologies, such as reactive-ion etching (RIE), electron-cyclotron-resonance (ECR) etching and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching have been developed to etch semiconductor devices having extremely small features sizes. By using the ICP technique it is possible to etch small diameter through-cavities such as through-holes with a very high aspect ratio and smooth surfaces in a substrate such as a silicon wafer.
The present invention is based on a novel approach, according to which a thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) such as a DLC or a microbattery is created on a macroporous substrate, thus presenting increased capacity and performance. By using the substrate volume, an increase in the total electrode area per volume is accomplished. The cavities within a substrate are formed by deep wet or dry etching of the substrate. For example, holes may be formed by an Inductive Coupling Plasma (ICP) etching using the Bosch process described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,501,893.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
It is an object of the present invention to provide a micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) such as a DLC or a microbattery exhibiting superior performance as compared to such cells known in the art. A more particular object of the invention is to provide a DLC or a microbattery with up to two orders of magnitude increase in capacity.
The above objects are achieved by the present invention, wherein a thin-film MEESC is formed on a substrate having etched structures. The use of such a substrate increases the available area for thin film deposition, thus leading to an increase in volume, i.e. capacity of the cell.
Thus, the present invention provides a thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) comprising two thin layer electrodes and intermediate to these electrodes, a thin layer of a solid electrolyte consisting of an ionically conducting or electronically non-conducting material such as glass, polymer electrolyte or polycrystalline material, and optionally a fourth thin current collector layer, all these layers being deposited in sequence on a surface of a substrate, wherein the MEESC is characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of cavities with high aspect ratio; said electrodes, solid electrolyte and current collector layers being deposited also throughout the inner surface of said cavities and on both surfaces.
In a preferred embodiment the MEESC of the present invention is a thin film microbattery which comprises:
a thin layer anode consisting of alkali metal (M), alkali metal alloy, for example alkali metal alloy based on Zn, Al, Mg, or Sn or in the charged state consisting of lithiated carbon or graphite,
a thin layer cathode consisting of LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMn2O4, TiS2, V2O5, V3O8 or lithiated forms of the vanadium oxides,
a solid electrolyte intermediate to the anode and cathode layers, which consists of a thin layer of an ionically conducting or electronically non-conducting material such as glass, polymer electrolyte or polycrystalline material, and
optionally, a current collector layer; the anode or cathode layer being deposited on a surface of a substrate, the microbattery being characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of cavities with high aspect ratio; said anode, cathode and solid electrolyte layers being deposited also throughout the inner surface of said holes.
In cases wherein the microbattery is a lithium ion type, such a battery is fabricated in the discharge state where the cathode is fully lithiated and the alloy, the carbon or the graphite anode is not charged with lithium.
According to another preferred embodiment, the MEESC of the present invention is a double-layer capacitor (DLC), which comprises two electrodes made of high surface area carbon powder and intermediate to these electrodes a solid electrolyte layer, preferably a polymer electrolyte.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
In order to understand the invention and to see how it may be carried out in practice, a preferred embodiment will now be described, by way of non-limiting example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a thin-film microbattery coating a silicon wafer with through-holes.
FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a test cell.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Thin-film rechargeable power sources can be applied for computer memory back-up and many other uses, such as autonomous micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Lithium batteries have been brought recently to an extreme stage of miniaturization. Sequential gas phase deposition techniques of anode, electrolyte and cathode layers make it possible to incorporate such lithium batteries on a silicon substrate. In a chemical vapor deposition process gases and/or vapors react to form a solid compound. This reaction usually takes place after adsorption and partial decomposition of the precursors on the substrate surface, though reaction in the gas phase is possible.
The thin-film MEESC of the present invention consists of a sandwich of multiple layers, coating the inside of a through-cavity of arbitrary shape, formed in a substrate, for example by means of Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP) etching when the substrate is made of silicon. Generally, the substrate material is made of a single crystal or amorphous material and is selected from glass, alumina, semiconductor materials for use in microelectronics, or ceramic materials. The substrate material is preferably silicon.
The through-cavities etched have very high aspect ratio and smooth surfaces, both features being essential for achieving uniform coating and an increase in the area available for thin-film deposition. The thin-film layers of the electrodes and electrolyte are deposited by either Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), casting or plating techniques. In CVD, gases providing the required materials will pass the cavity, undergo a chemical reaction induced by heat, plasma or a combination of the two, and deposit the material uniformly on the inside wall and between the cavities.
According to the present invention, for microbattery applications the polymer electrolyte is designed so as to contain at least one material that can be reduced to form an insoluble solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the anode surface. Aprotic solvents such as ethylene carbonate (EC), diethylcarbonate (DEC), dimethylcarbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), butyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinyl carbonate, dialkylsulfites and any mixtures of these, and metal salts such as LiPF6, LiBF4, LiAsF6, LiCF3, and LiN(CF3SO2)2 are considered to be good SEI precursors, as well as other salts such as LiI and LiBr. The polymer electrolyte further contains a polymer, preferably polyethylene oxide, adapted to form a complex with the metal salt and optionally a nanosize ceramic powder to form a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE).
While lithium metal foil is typically used for the negative electrode, the negative electrode is not specifically restricted as long as it comprises an electrically conductive film that provides alkali metal in a form effective for the electrode reaction. The preferred microbattery used in the present invention is a lithium ion type battery fabricated in the discharge state wherein the anode is made of Al, Sn, Zn, Mg based alloys, carbon or graphite. Lithium-ion cells made according to the present invention are air stable in the discharged state and are charged only after the assembly of the cell, thus being more favorable in terms of ease of production.
Similarly, the active substance of the positive electrode is not specifically restricted as long as it is of a type in which the metal ions, e.g. lithium ions are intercalated or inserted during discharge and taken out during charge of the battery. Inorganic compounds are typically employed, for example LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMn2O4, and lithiated vandium oxides for the lithium ion microbattery, while FeS2 and TiS2 can be used for the lithium metal anode microbattery. Fine powders of these compounds are cast together with the polymer electrolyte. In addition, it was found that where a composite polymer electrolyte and/or a cathode contain up to 15% (V/V) of inorganic nanosize powder such as Al2O3, SiO2, MgO, TiO2 or mixtures thereof, the cell demonstrates improved charge-discharge performance.
For the DLC application additional salts can be used such as amonium and alkyl amonium salts. The DLC is made in a similar way as the microbattery: the electrodes are made in a same manner as the cathode layer in microbatteries, but the cathode powder is replaced by a high surface area (over 50 m2/g) carbon.
FIG. 1 shows a possible cylindrical geometry implemented in a substrate, for example silicon, of a microbattery. The anode is made, in the charged state, of an alkali metal (M), alkali metal alloy or lithiated carbon. The preferred alkali metal is lithium and the preferred alloys are Al, Mg, Sn and Zn based alloys. The solid electrolyte is made of an ionically conducting glass, preferably LiXPOYNZ where 2<x<3, 2y=3z and 0.18<z<0.43, or Li2S-SiS2 glasses doped with up to 5% LiSO4 or 30% LiI, or a poly(ethylene oxide) based polymer electrolyte, preferably cross-linked poly (ethylene oxide) with CF3SO3Li or LiN(CF3SO2)2. The cathode is made of LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMn2O4, TiS2, V2O5, V3O13 or the lithiated form of these vanadium oxides. The layers are deposited by CVD, plating, casting or similar known coating techniques, preferably by CVD. Contacts to the anode and cathode are made on either the same side of the wafer using masking, etching, and contact metal deposition, or using both sides of the wafer.
By etching the substrate with macroporous cavities of various shapes, the microbattery of the present invention has an increased area available for thin film deposition by up to 100 fold. Since the capacity of a battery is directly proportional to its volume, for the same thin-film thickness (typically a few microns for each layer of anode, electrode and cathode and up to a total of about 70 μm), means an increase in volume of up to about two orders of magnitude, i.e. capacity, to about 10,000 microAmp hour per 1 square cm.
For a circular cavity with diameter d in a wafer of thickness h (“aspect ratio”=h/d), the ratio k of surface area after etching to the original, “planar” state is 2 h/d. For a square cavity with side a in the same wafer, k=2 h/a. Thus, for a typical wafer with a thickness of 400 μm (e.g. h=400) and d or a=15 μm, the increase in area is: k=53, while for d=10 μm, k=80.
The invention will be further described in more detail with the aid of the following non-limiting examples.
EXAMPLE 1
A microbattery, consisting of a carbon anode, composite polymer electrolyte and composite LiCoO2 cathode was fabricated in the discharged state on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 100 micron in diameter through holes. A thin carbon film was deposited by CVD at 850 Celsius by passing a C2H4 (10%) Ar (90%) gas mixture for four minutes over the wafer.
A second layer of a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE) was deposited (inside an Ar filled glove box) over the carbon layer by a short vacuum dipping at 50-65 Celsius in acetonitrile (30 ml) suspension consisting of 0.6 g PEO (5×106 MW), 0.05 g EC, 0.1 g LiN(CF3SO2)2 (imide) and 0.03 g alumina. After drying, a second layer of CPE was deposited in the same way to get the desired CPE thickness. A thin cathode layer was deposited (inside the glove box) over the CPE layer by a short vacuum dipping in cyclopentanone (10 ml) suspension consisting of 2 g of ball milled LiCoO2, 0.05 g alumina, 0.2 g PVDF copolymer (ELF 2800) and 0.4 g sub-micron graphite powder. As an option for improving cathode utilization and power capability, a forth PVDF-graphite layer is deposited on the cathode.
Poly(ethylene oxide)(P(EO)) was purchased from Aldrich, (average molecular weight 5×106) and was vacuum dried at 45° to 50° C. for about 24 hours. The imide (Aldrich) was vacuum dried at 200° C. for about 4 hours. All subsequent handling of these materials took place under an argon atmosphere in a VAC glove box with an water content<10 ppm. A polymer electrolyte slurry was prepared by dispersing known quantities of P(EO), imide, and ethylene carbonate (EC) in analytical grade acetonitrile together with the required amount of an inorganic filler, such as Al2O3 (Buehler), or SiO2 with an average diameter of about 150Å. To ensure the formation of a homogeneous suspension, an ultrasonic bath or high-speed homogenizer was used. The suspension was stirred for about 24 hours before the composite cathode was cast. The solvent was allowed to evaporate slowly and then the wafers were vacuum dried at 120° C. for at least 5 hours. The electro-chemical characteristics of the microbattery has been examined in the experimental cell showed in FIG. 2, which comprises a hermetically sealed glass container 5, provided with an outlet 1, connected to a vacuum pump; the glass cover 3 of the glass container is equipped with a Viton O-ring 4. On one side of the wafer a contact was made to the carbon anode and on the other side a contact was made to the cathode. The test cell illustrated in FIG. 2 is connected by wires 7 to tungsten rods 2 which pass through the cover. In the glass container, the battery 6 was cycled between 2.5 and 4.1 V at 0.01 mA and at 25° C. using a Maccor series 2000 battery test system.
The cell delivered above 0.4 mAh per cycle for over 20 cycles. The Faradaic efficiency was close to 100%.
EXAMPLE 2
A DLC, consisting of two carbon electrodes, and composite polymer electrolyte was fabricated on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 100 micron in diameter through holes in a similar way as described in Example 1. A thin high surface area carbon powder (500 m2/g) (made by 1000 Celsius pyrolysis of cotton) layer was deposited (inside the glove box) on the perforated wafer by a short vacuum dipping in cyclopentanone (10 ml) suspension consisting of 1 g of ball milled carbon, 0.05 g carbon black and 0.1 g PVDF copolymer (ELF 2800). A second layer of a composite polymer electrolyte (CPE) was deposited (inside Ar filled glove box) over the carbon layer by a short vacuum dipping at 50-65 Celsius in an acetonitrile (30 ml) suspension consisting of 0.6 g PEO (5×106 MW), 0.05 g EC, 0.1 g LiN(CF3SO2)2 (imide) and 0.03 g alumina. After drying, another layer of CPE was deposited in the same way to get the desired CPE thickness. A third high surface area carbon layer was deposited in the same way as the first one.
By using the procedure described in Example 1 above, the DLC was cycled at 0.01 mA between 1.2 and 2.5 V for over 1000 cycles of 10 seconds each.
EXAMPLE 3
A microbattery, consisting of four thin films: a carbon anode, Al doped Li2CO3 solid electrolyte, LiCoO2 cathode and carbon current collector was fabricated in the discharged state on a perforated 400 micron thick silicon wafer which contains 60 micron in diameter through holes. A thin carbon film was CVD deposited at 850 Celsius by passing a C2H4 (10%) Ar (90%) gas mixture for three minutes over the wafer. A second layer of thin Al doped Li2CO3 solid electrolyte was deposited at 475 Celsius on the first one by CVD following the procedure described in P. Fragnaul et al. J. Power Sources 54, 362 1995. A third thin layer of LiCoO2 cathode was deposited at 500 Celsius on the second one following the procedure described in P. Fragnaul et al. J. Power Sources 54, 362 1995. A fourth thin carbon current collector layer was deposited at 800 Celsius on the third one in the same way as the first one.
This cell was cycled (as described in example 1) at 0.01 mA and at room temperature between 2.5 and 4.1 V for more than 10 stable cycles.

Claims (36)

1. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery, said microbattery comprising:
a substrate having two surfaces,
a thin layer anode consisting of alkali metal (M), alkali metal alloy or in the charged state consisting of lithiated carbon or graphite,
a thin layer cathode consisting of LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMn2O4, TiS2, V2O5, V3O8 or lithiated forms of the vanadium oxides,
a solid electrolyte intermediate to said anode and cathode layers, consisting of a tin layer of an ionically conducting or electronically non-conducting material selected from glass, poly(ethylene oxide) based polymer electrolyte or polycrystalline material, and
optionally, a fourth current collector layer;
said anode or cathode layer being deposited in sequence on both surfaces of said substrate, said microbattery being characterized in that the substrate is provided with a plurality of through cavities of arbitrary shape, with an aspect ratio greater than 1, the diameter of said cavities being from about 15μ to about 150μ; said anode, cathode, solid electrolyte layers and optional current collector layer being also deposited throughout the inner surface of said cavities.
2. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the substrate is made of a single crystal or amorphous material.
3. The microbattery of claim 2, wherein the substrate material is selected from the group consisting of glass, alumina, semiconductor materials for use in microelectronics and ceramic materials.
4. The microbattery of claim 3, wherein the substrate material is made of silicon.
5. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the alkali metal (M) which forms the anode is lithium.
6. A lithium ion type microbattery according to claim 1, being fabricated in the discharge state where the cathode is fully lithiated and the alloy, carbon or graphite anode is not charged with lithium.
7. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the through cavities of the substrate are formed by Inductive Coupled Plasma etching.
8. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the through cavities of the substrate have an aspect ratio of between about 2 to about 50.
9. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein said cavities have a cylindrical geometry.
10. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the solid electrolyte is a polymer electrolyte based on poly(ethylene oxide) and CF3SO3Li, (CF3SO2)2NLi, or mixtures thereof.
11. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the solid electrolyte is selected from LiXPOYNZ where 2<x<3, 2y=3z and 0.18<z<0.43, or LiS-SiS2 glasses doped with up to 5% LiSO4 or 30% LiI.
12. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the solid electrolyte is a polymer electrolyte and it comprises between about 2 to about 15% (V/V) high surface area of inorganic, nanosize particles of ceramic powder which consists of Al2O3, SiO2, MgO, TiO2 or mixtures thereof.
13. The microbattery of claim 1, wherein the solid electrolyte comprises Li2CO3 doped with up to about 10% (% atomic weight relative to Li) of Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr, Al or B.
14. A self-powered semiconductor component comprising a microbattery according to claim 2.
15. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery, said microbattery comprising:
a substrate having two surfaces and including a plurality of through cavities of arbitrary shape, said cavities characterized by having an aspect ratio greater than 1 and extending between said two surfaces;
a thin layer anode;
a thin layer cathode; and
an electrolyte intermediate to said anode and cathode layers;
wherein said anode layer, said cathode layer, and said electrolyte intermediate to said anode and cathode layers, are deposited over said two surfaces and throughout the inner surface of said cavities.
16. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said substrate comprises a single crystal substrate.
17. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 16 and wherein said single crystal substrate comprises a silicon substrate.
18. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said substrate comprises a single amorphous material.
19. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said substrate comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of glass, alumina, semiconductors and ceramic materials.
20. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said anode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of an alkali metal, an alkali metal alloy, carbon and graphite.
21. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 20 and wherein said alkali metal comprises lithium.
22. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 20 being fabricated in the discharge state wherein said cathode layer is fully lithiated.
23. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 22 and wherein said metal alloy is not charged with lithium.
24. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 22 and wherein said carbon and said graphite are not charged with lithium.
25. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said cavities have an aspect ratio greater than 1 and up to about 50.
26. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said electrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte.
27. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 68 and wherein said polymer electrolyte comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of glass, a polyethylene oxide based polymer, a polycrystalline material, ethylene carbonate (EC), diethylcarbonate (DEC), dimethylcarbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), butyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinyl carbonate, dialkylsulfites, LiPF 6 , LiBF 4 , LiAsF 6 , LiCF 3 , LiN(CF 3 SO 2)2 , LiI and LiBr.
28. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said electrolyte is selected from Li x PO y N z where 2<x<3, 2y=3z and 0.18<z<0.43, or LiS—SiS 2 glasses doped with up to 5 % LiSO 4 or 30 % LiI.
29. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein the electrolyte comprises Li 2 CO 3 doped with up to about 10 %, of atomic weight relative to Li, of Al.
30. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said anode layer comprises lithium metal foil.
31. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said cathode layer comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiMn 2 O 4 , TiS 2 , V 2 O 5 , V 3 O 13 , the lithiated form of V 2 O 5 and the lithiated form of V 3 O 13 .
32. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and also comprising at least one PVDF-graphite layer deposited on said cathode layer.
33. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and wherein said anode layer and said cathode layer comprise carbon.
34. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 33 and wherein said electrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte.
35. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 15 and also comprising a current collector layer.
36. A thin-film micro-electrochemical energy storage cell (MEESC) in the form of a microbattery according to claim 35 and wherein said current collector layer is deposited over said anode layer, said electrolyte, and said cathode layer.
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